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PARFUM

1.

Usages profanes.

La vie de l'Oriental en pays chaud exige de fréquentes ablutions, qui dans une toilette soignée se complètent d'onctions (voir ce mot), appliquées parfois au corps tout entier (2Sa 12:20, Eze 16:9 ; voir Bain) ; ces onctions parfumées combattent les mauvaises odeurs, souvent intolérables sous les climats brûlants, parmi des populations ignorant à peu près tout de l'hygiène.

Les vêtements de gala, portés aux fêtes ou cérémonies, étaient ordinairement parfumés (Ge 27:15,27, Ps 45:9, Esa 57:9).

De plus, en Palestine comme partout, les parfums accompagnaient la sensualité (Ca 1:12 4:10-16 Pr 7:17 Est 2:12, Jug 10:3 etc.) ; aussi le prophète annonce-t-il aux coquettes de Jérusalem que leurs boîtes à parfums--sans doute flacons d'essences recherchées--deviendront pourriture (Esa 3:20,24).

Les onctions odoriférantes étaient aussi un grand honneur à faire aux bienfaiteurs, aux chefs, en hommage de gratitude et de fidélité (Mr 14:3 parallèle Mt 26:7 parallèle Jn 12:3, Lu 7:37 et suivant), comme les aromates destinés à embaumer le corps des défunts (Mr 16:1 parallèle Lu 24:1) ; on peut rapprocher de ces derniers textes, et de la remarque de Jésus : « elle a d'avance embaumé mon corps pour ma sépulture » (Mr 14:8), cette mention d'un compte écrit sur papyrus au début du I er siècle : « parfum pour le déplacement de la momie de la fille de Phna, 4 oboles ».

Le parfum le plus commun était l'huile (voir ce mot), l'une des principales productions de la Palestine (voir Olivier), donc accessible à tous (Ec 10:1 etc.) ; mais les raffinements des grands et des élégants mirent en honneur toutes sortes d'onguents indigènes et exotiques, soit purs soit mélangés en de savantes mixtures, qu'on faisait bouillir dans des cassolettes (Job 41:22). D'où l'importance de la profession de parfumeur et même, pour le roi, de la parfumeuse, qui devint un art véritable (1Sa 8:13, Ex 30:25-35 37:29,2Ch 16:14, Ne 3:8 etc.) ; sous les rois d'Israël l'Arabie fournissait des parfums exquis (Eze 27:22) et au temps des apôtres les parfums les plus divers étaient apportés à Rome par « les marchands de la terre » (Ap 18:13).

On trouvera des précisions sur l'origine des plus connus aux art. les concernant : Aromates, Casse, Cinnamome, Nard, Baumes (notamment parag. 5 : myrrhe, dont le nom grec a souvent, et dans le N.T. en particulier, le sens général de parfum), etc.

L'A. T, fait aussi quelques mentions des parfums naturels de certains végétaux, arbres ou plantes (Ca 2:13 5:13 7:13 Bar 5:8) ; ils servent de termes de comparaisons pour les vertus qui rendent les hommes agréables : sagesse, repentir, etc (Os 14:6, Sir 24:15 39:14). D'où l'expression courante en hébr., et passée dans les langues modernes : être en bonne odeur, ou en mauvaise odeur, à son prochain ; généralement nos versions atténuent ou suppriment cette image (Ge 34:30, Ex 5:21,2Sa 10:6 etc.). qui nous amène aux points de vue moral et religieux.

2.

Usages religieux.

De même que la flamme et la fumée des sacrifices se sont de toute antiquité associées à la prière de l'officiant (voir Feu, I, 4), de même par un anthropomorphisme bien explicable les hommes primitifs se sont figuré que les dieux éprouvaient du plaisir à en sentir la bonne odeur. Dans le récit babylonien du Déluge (voir ce mot), lorsque Utnapistim, sortant de l'arche, leur offrit un sacrifice d'actions de grâces, « les dieux sentirent la bonne odeur et s'assemblèrent comme des mouches au-dessus du sacrifiant ». Une trace de la même idée simpliste se trouve dans le vieux récit jéhoviste du sacrifice de Noé : « L'Éternel sentit l'agréable odeur, puis l'Éternel dit... » (Ge 8:21). Par la suite cette conception n'aura plus que la valeur d'une image, importante dans le rituel israélite, marquée par la locution liturgique fréquente : « un sacrifice d'agréable odeur pour l'Éternel » (Ex 29:18, Le 1:9,13,17 26:31, Eze 20:41, Esd 6:10 etc.). C'est qu'en effet pour les Sémites le parfum symbolisait surtout l'état d'âme de l'adorateur : sa consécration et sa purification personnelles (W. Rob. Smith, Relig. Sem., qui cite à ce sujet Hérodote et Pline). Ainsi, tandis que les Cananéens, et ceux des Hébreux qui les imitent, brûlent des parfums sur les hauts-lieux (1Ro 12:33, Jer 34:5, Eze 6:13 etc.), le parfum de l'encens (voir ce mot), employé dans le culte d'Israël (Ex 25:6,1Ch 9:29 23:13,2Ch 2:6, Sir 45:16, etc.), avec la place centrale donnée dans le Temple de Jérusalem à l'autel des parfums (Ex 30, etc., Lu 1:10), finit par représenter la prière qu'il accompagne (voir Autel ; Sacrifices, II, 3, B, c).

Sans doute, les prophètes condamnent les encensements qui ne sont que pur formalisme (Am 5:21 et suivants, Esa 1:13, etc.), alors que, plusieurs passages des livres apocryphes semblent s'en tenir à l'idée primitive : (cf. Sir 35:8) les idoles n'ayant pas d'odorat ne peuvent sentir les sacrifices (Sir 30 19), l'odeur du sacrifice fait fuir le démon (Tob 8:3) ; mais la piété des croyants unit à l'encens la vraie prière (Ps 141:2), l'Apocalypse chrétienne voit dans la coupe pleine de parfum les prières des saints, que l'ange présente à Dieu (Ap 5:8 8:3 et suivant). La carrière terrestre du Seigneur Jésus s'encadre entre deux hommages embaumés : la myrrhe des mages (Mt 2:11) et le nard pur de Marie (Jn 12:3,7), et l'embaumement projeté du corps du Crucifié n'a pu être fait parce qu'il est le Ressuscité (Mr 16:1 et suivant). L'apôtre Paul applique l'image de l'ancienne alliance, d'abord à l'immolation du Sauveur : « Christ s'est donné lui-même à Dieu pour nous, en offrande et en sacrifice, comme un parfum d'agréable odeur » (Eph 5:2), puis à son triomphe « qui répand par nous en tous lieux le parfum de sa connaissance », et il poursuit en comparant la puissance de l'Évangile à celle d'un parfum salutaire pour les chrétiens et mortel pour les non-chrétiens (2Co 2:14,16). Il compare la libéralité des frères de l'Église de Philippes à « un parfum de bonne odeur, un sacrifice que Dieu accepte et qui lui est agréable » (Php 4:18).

L'Église chrétienne primitive ne brûlait point de parfums : parfois seulement un peu d'encens dans les Catacombes pour en purifier l'air (Tertullien) ; Dieu étant lui-même l'encens le plus parfait, dit Athénagore, n'a pas besoin qu'on lui en offre. C'étaient les cultes païens qui pratiquaient cet usage, et le geste d'apostasie du chrétien consistait à jeter quelques grains d'encens dans le foyer d'un autel païen. Un des plus anciens témoignages aux encensements dans le culte chrétien apparaît dans les Constitutions Apostoliques (fin du IV e siècle ?).

Les auteurs catholiques y voient un symbole :

du parfum de l'Évangile,

des prières des saints,

de la gloire divine cachée par les nuées.

Deux motifs utilitaires sont aussi invoqués dans une Église qui ne néglige aucune ressource de la nature humaine :

neutraliser les émanations désagréables des assemblées nombreuses,

>2° associer pour la vie tout entière, grâce à la ténacité de la mémoire olfactive, les souvenirs de l'instruction religieuse des enfants à l'atmosphère même qu'ils auront respirée en recevant cette instruction. Jn L.

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      Genèse 8

      21 Yahweh smelled the pleasant aroma. Yahweh said in his heart, "I will not again curse the ground any more for man's sake, because the imagination of man's heart is evil from his youth; neither will I ever again strike everything living, as I have done.

      Genèse 27

      15 Rebekah took the good clothes of Esau, her elder son, which were with her in the house, and put them on Jacob, her younger son.
      27 He came near, and kissed him. He smelled the smell of his clothing, and blessed him, and said, "Behold, the smell of my son is as the smell of a field which Yahweh has blessed.

      Genèse 34

      30 Jacob said to Simeon and Levi, "You have troubled me, to make me odious to the inhabitants of the land, among the Canaanites and the Perizzites. I am few in number. They will gather themselves together against me and strike me, and I will be destroyed, I and my house."

      Exode 5

      21 and they said to them, "May Yahweh look at you, and judge, because you have made us a stench to be abhorred in the eyes of Pharaoh, and in the eyes of his servants, to put a sword in their hand to kill us."

      Exode 25

      6 oil for the light, spices for the anointing oil and for the sweet incense,

      Exode 29

      18 You shall burn the whole ram on the altar: it is a burnt offering to Yahweh; it is a pleasant aroma, an offering made by fire to Yahweh.

      Exode 30

      1 "You shall make an altar to burn incense on. You shall make it of acacia wood.
      2 Its length shall be a cubit, and its breadth a cubit. It shall be square, and its height shall be two cubits. Its horns shall be of one piece with it.
      3 You shall overlay it with pure gold, its top, its sides around it, and its horns; and you shall make a gold molding around it.
      4 You shall make two golden rings for it under its molding; on its two ribs, on its two sides you shall make them; and they shall be for places for poles with which to bear it.
      5 You shall make the poles of acacia wood, and overlay them with gold.
      6 You shall put it before the veil that is by the ark of the testimony, before the mercy seat that is over the testimony, where I will meet with you.
      7 Aaron shall burn incense of sweet spices on it every morning. When he tends the lamps, he shall burn it.
      8 When Aaron lights the lamps at evening, he shall burn it, a perpetual incense before Yahweh throughout your generations.
      9 You shall offer no strange incense on it, nor burnt offering, nor meal offering; and you shall pour no drink offering on it.
      10 Aaron shall make atonement on its horns once in the year; with the blood of the sin offering of atonement once in the year he shall make atonement for it throughout your generations. It is most holy to Yahweh."
      11 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      12 "When you take a census of the children of Israel, according to those who are numbered among them, then each man shall give a ransom for his soul to Yahweh, when you number them; that there be no plague among them when you number them.
      13 They shall give this, everyone who passes over to those who are numbered, half a shekel after the shekel of the sanctuary; (the shekel is twenty gerahs;) half a shekel for an offering to Yahweh.
      14 Everyone who passes over to those who are numbered, from twenty years old and upward, shall give the offering to Yahweh.
      15 The rich shall not give more, and the poor shall not give less, than the half shekel, when they give the offering of Yahweh, to make atonement for your souls.
      16 You shall take the atonement money from the children of Israel, and shall appoint it for the service of the Tent of Meeting; that it may be a memorial for the children of Israel before Yahweh, to make atonement for your souls."
      17 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      18 "You shall also make a basin of brass, and its base of brass, in which to wash. You shall put it between the Tent of Meeting and the altar, and you shall put water in it.
      19 Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and their feet in it.
      20 When they go into the Tent of Meeting, they shall wash with water, that they not die; or when they come near to the altar to minister, to burn an offering made by fire to Yahweh.
      21 So they shall wash their hands and their feet, that they not die: and it shall be a statute forever to them, even to him and to his descendants throughout their generations."
      22 Moreover Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      23 "Also take fine spices: of liquid myrrh, five hundred shekels; and of fragrant cinnamon half as much, even two hundred and fifty; and of fragrant cane, two hundred and fifty;
      24 and of cassia five hundred, after the shekel of the sanctuary; and a hin of olive oil.
      25 You shall make it a holy anointing oil, a perfume compounded after the art of the perfumer: it shall be a holy anointing oil.
      26 You shall use it to anoint the Tent of Meeting, the ark of the testimony,
      27 the table and all its articles, the lampstand and its accessories, the altar of incense,
      28 the altar of burnt offering with all its utensils, and the basin with its base.
      29 You shall sanctify them, that they may be most holy. Whatever touches them shall be holy.
      30 You shall anoint Aaron and his sons, and sanctify them, that they may minister to me in the priest's office.
      31 You shall speak to the children of Israel, saying, 'This shall be a holy anointing oil to me throughout your generations.
      32 It shall not be poured on man's flesh, neither shall you make any like it, according to its composition: it is holy. It shall be holy to you.
      33 Whoever compounds any like it, or whoever puts any of it on a stranger, he shall be cut off from his people.'"
      34 Yahweh said to Moses, "Take to yourself sweet spices, gum resin, and onycha, and galbanum; sweet spices with pure frankincense: there shall be an equal weight of each;
      35 and you shall make incense of it, a perfume after the art of the perfumer, seasoned with salt, pure and holy:
      36 and you shall beat some of it very small, and put some of it before the testimony in the Tent of Meeting, where I will meet with you. It shall be to you most holy.
      37 The incense which you shall make, according to its composition you shall not make for yourselves: it shall be to you holy for Yahweh.
      38 Whoever shall make any like that, to smell of it, he shall be cut off from his people."

      Exode 37

      29 He made the holy anointing oil and the pure incense of sweet spices, after the art of the perfumer.

      Lévitique 1

      9 but its innards and its legs he shall wash with water. The priest shall burn the whole on the altar, for a burnt offering, an offering made by fire, of a pleasant aroma to Yahweh.
      13 but the innards and the legs he shall wash with water. The priest shall offer the whole, and burn it on the altar. It is a burnt offering, an offering made by fire, of a pleasant aroma to Yahweh.
      17 He shall tear it by its wings, but shall not divide it apart. The priest shall burn it on the altar, on the wood that is on the fire. It is a burnt offering, an offering made by fire, of a pleasant aroma to Yahweh.

      Lévitique 26

      31 I will lay your cities waste, and will bring your sanctuaries to desolation, and I will not take delight in the sweet fragrance of your offerings.

      Juges 10

      3 After him arose Jair, the Gileadite; and he judged Israel twenty-two years.

      1 Samuel 8

      13 He will take your daughters to be perfumers, and to be cooks, and to be bakers.

      2 Samuel 10

      6 When the children of Ammon saw that they were become odious to David, the children of Ammon sent and hired the Syrians of Beth Rehob, and the Syrians of Zobah, twenty thousand footmen, and the king of Maacah with one thousand men, and the men of Tob twelve thousand men.

      2 Samuel 12

      20 Then David arose from the earth, and washed, and anointed himself, and changed his clothing; and he came into the house of Yahweh, and worshiped: then he came to his own house; and when he required, they set bread before him, and he ate.

      1 Chroniques 9

      29 Some of them also were appointed over the furniture, and over all the vessels of the sanctuary, and over the fine flour, and the wine, and the oil, and the frankincense, and the spices.

      2 Chroniques 2

      6 But who is able to build him a house, since heaven and the heaven of heavens can't contain him? who am I then, that I should build him a house, except just to burn incense before him?

      2 Chroniques 16

      14 They buried him in his own tombs, which he had dug out for himself in the city of David, and laid him in the bed which was filled with sweet odors and various kinds of spices prepared by the perfumers' art: and they made a very great burning for him.

      Esdras 6

      10 that they may offer sacrifices of pleasant aroma to the God of heaven, and pray for the life of the king, and of his sons.

      Néhémie 3

      8 Next to him, Uzziel the son of Harhaiah, goldsmiths, made repairs. Next to him, Hananiah one of the perfumers made repairs, and they fortified Jerusalem even to the broad wall.

      Esther 2

      12 Each young woman's turn came to go in to King Ahasuerus after her purification for twelve months (for so were the days of their purification accomplished, six months with oil of myrrh, and six months with sweet fragrances and with preparations for beautifying women).

      Job 41

      22 There is strength in his neck. Terror dances before him.

      Psaumes 45

      9 Kings' daughters are among your honorable women. At your right hand the queen stands in gold of Ophir.

      Psaumes 141

      2 Let my prayer be set before you like incense; the lifting up of my hands like the evening sacrifice.

      Proverbes 7

      17 I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon.

      Ecclésiaste 10

      1 Dead flies cause the oil of the perfumer to send forth an evil odor; so does a little folly outweigh wisdom and honor.

      Cantique 1

      12 While the king sat at his table, my perfume spread its fragrance.

      Cantique 2

      13 The fig tree ripens her green figs. The vines are in blossom. They give forth their fragrance. Arise, my love, my beautiful one, and come away." Lover

      Cantique 4

      10 How beautiful is your love, my sister, my bride! How much better is your love than wine! The fragrance of your perfumes than all kinds of spices!

      Cantique 5

      13 His cheeks are like a bed of spices with towers of perfumes. His lips are like lilies, dropping liquid myrrh.

      Cantique 7

      13 The mandrakes give forth fragrance. At our doors are all kinds of precious fruits, new and old, which I have stored up for you, my beloved.

      Esaïe 1

      13 Bring no more vain offerings. Incense is an abomination to me; new moons, Sabbaths, and convocations: I can't bear with evil assemblies.

      Esaïe 3

      20 the headdresses, the ankle chains, the sashes, the perfume bottles, the charms,
      24 It shall happen that instead of sweet spices, there shall be rottenness; instead of a belt, a rope; instead of well set hair, baldness; instead of a robe, a wearing of sackcloth; and branding instead of beauty.

      Esaïe 57

      9 You went to the king with oil, and increased your perfumes, and sent your ambassadors far off, and debased yourself even to Sheol .

      Jérémie 34

      5 you shall die in peace; and with the burnings of your fathers, the former kings who were before you, so shall they make a burning for you; and they shall lament you, saying, Ah Lord! for I have spoken the word, says Yahweh.

      Ezéchiel 6

      13 You shall know that I am Yahweh, when their slain men shall be among their idols around their altars, on every high hill, on all the tops of the mountains, and under every green tree, and under every thick oak, the places where they offered pleasant aroma to all their idols.

      Ezéchiel 16

      9 Then washed I you with water; yes, I thoroughly washed away your blood from you, and I anointed you with oil.

      Ezéchiel 20

      41 As a pleasant aroma will I accept you, when I bring you out from the peoples, and gather you out of the countries in which you have been scattered; and I will be sanctified in you in the sight of the nations.

      Ezéchiel 27

      22 The traffickers of Sheba and Raamah, they were your traffickers; they traded for your wares with the chief of all spices, and with all precious stones, and gold.

      Osée 14

      6 His branches will spread, and his beauty will be like the olive tree, and his fragrance like Lebanon.

      Amos 5

      21 I hate, I despise your feasts, and I can't stand your solemn assemblies.

      Matthieu 2

      11 They came into the house and saw the young child with Mary, his mother, and they fell down and worshiped him. Opening their treasures, they offered to him gifts: gold, frankincense, and myrrh.

      Matthieu 26

      7 a woman came to him having an alabaster jar of very expensive ointment, and she poured it on his head as he sat at the table.

      Marc 14

      3 While he was at Bethany, in the house of Simon the leper, as he sat at the table, a woman came having an alabaster jar of ointment of pure nard--very costly. She broke the jar, and poured it over his head.
      8 She has done what she could. She has anointed my body beforehand for the burying.

      Marc 16

      1 When the Sabbath was past, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Salome, bought spices, that they might come and anoint him.

      Luc 1

      10 The whole multitude of the people were praying outside at the hour of incense.

      Luc 7

      37 Behold, a woman in the city who was a sinner, when she knew that he was reclining in the Pharisee's house, she brought an alabaster jar of ointment.

      Luc 24

      1 But on the first day of the week, at early dawn, they and some others came to the tomb, bringing the spices which they had prepared.

      Jean 12

      3 Mary, therefore, took a pound of ointment of pure nard, very precious, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair. The house was filled with the fragrance of the ointment.
      7 But Jesus said, "Leave her alone. She has kept this for the day of my burial.

      2 Corinthiens 2

      14 Now thanks be to God, who always leads us in triumph in Christ, and reveals through us the sweet aroma of his knowledge in every place.

      Ephésiens 5

      2 Walk in love, even as Christ also loved you, and gave himself up for us, an offering and a sacrifice to God for a sweet-smelling fragrance.

      Apocalypse 5

      8 Now when he had taken the book, the four living creatures and the twenty-four elders fell down before the Lamb, each one having a harp, and golden bowls full of incense, which are the prayers of the saints.

      Apocalypse 8

      3 Another angel came and stood over the altar, having a golden censer. Much incense was given to him, that he should add it to the prayers of all the saints on the golden altar which was before the throne.

      Apocalypse 18

      13 and cinnamon, incense, perfume, frankincense, wine, olive oil, fine flour, wheat, sheep, horses, chariots, and people's bodies and souls.
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