Dictionnaire Biblique de Top Bible

AGRICULTURE

Les Israélites furent d'abord nomades et surtout éleveurs de bétail ; ils devinrent agriculteurs, par suite de leur établissement en Canaan et de leur contact avec ses habitants. Pour les Cananéens, la culture dépendait étroitement du culte de Baal (voir ce mot) ; les prophètes apprirent à Israël qu'il appartenait à Jéhovah aussi bien pour sa vie économique que pour son existence politique (Élie : 1Ro 18, Esa 28:24-29, cf. Ge 27:28 49:25 De 33:13 et suivants). Une mention spéciale relative au roi Ozias lui attribue un grand développement de l'agriculture et de l'élevage (2Ch 26:10).

LES TERRES. Une partie seulement du territoire était cultivée, en dehors des landes ou des rocs arides et des crêtes boisées (Jos 17:15 et suivants).

Les champs (voir ce mot) étaient parfois limités par des bornes (Os 5:10, De 19:14 27:17, Pr 22:28).

L'unité de mesure de surface était le « joug », ou espace qu'une paire de boeufs pouvait labourer en un jour (1Sa 14:14, Esa 5:10) ; on l'estimait aussi en quantité de semence (Le 27:16,1Ro 18:32).

Le sol n'était pas irrigué (De 11:10).

Il n'est pas sûr qu'on fumât généralement les terres (voir Fumier) ; les déchets d'animaux servaient de combustible (Eze 4:15), et l'on fertilisait parfois en brûlant chaume et buissons (Ex 15:7, Esa 5:24 47:14).

La prescription jubilaire (laisser reposer la terre tous les sept ans) semble prouver la fertilité du sol cultivable (Ex 23:10) ; la parabole du semeur (Mt 13) en est une autre preuve, les rendements (exceptionnels il est vrai) pouvant être de 100, 50 ou 30 pour 1 ; la moyenne était de 6 ou 7 pour 1.

LEGISLATION. La réglementation agricole peut se résumer ainsi : indemnité de pâture dans les champs (Ex 22:5), droit de glaner (Le 19:9), autorisation de cueillir des épis en cas de faim (De 23:25), respect des bornes (De 19:14), interdiction de mélanger les semences (Le 19:19), observation de l'année sabbatique (Ex 23:11, Le 25:4) et de l'année jubilaire (Le 25:28), ces deux dernières prescriptions représentant sans doute un idéal plutôt qu'un usage réel.

CULTURE. Un calendrier agricole découvert à Guézer, datant du VI e siècle environ av. J. -C, note ainsi le rythme des saisons et des travaux, en commençant en automne : 2 mois, rentrée des récoltes ; 2 mois, semailles ; 2 mois, semailles tardives ; 1 mois, récolte de lin ; 1 mois, moisson d'orge ; 1 mois, les autres moissons ; 2 mois, vendange ; 1 mois, récolte sur les arbres fruitiers. L'automne était en effet l'époque où les premières pluies amollissaient le sol, durci par le soleil d'été. On remuait la terre à la pioche, bêche ou hoyau (1Sa 13:20, Esa 7:25) mais surtout à la charrue (Lu 9:62), qu'on tenait d'une main, l'autre maniant l'aiguillon, et que tirait une paire de boeufs (Am 6:12), vaches ou génisses (1Sa 6:7, De 21:3), ou bien d'ânes (Esa 30:24), réunis sous le joug (Le 26:13) ; mais la loi interdisait d'accoupler boeuf et âne (De 22:10), soit pour épargner l'animal le plus faible, soit plutôt par une extension de la crainte de tout métissage, considéré comme odieux à Jéhovah. On semait le grain (voir ce mot) à la main, le plus près possible de la charrue, pour enfouir immédiatement la semence, à l'abri du dessèchement, des oiseaux et des insectes : Esa 28:25 fait sans doute allusion à un procédé d'ensemencement, avec un entonnoir fixé à la charrue et laissant tomber les grains derrière le soc. La moisson se faisait entre la Pâque et la Pentecôte, les terres chaudes des vallées avançant de deux semaines sur les hauts plateaux ; c'est pourquoi la fête des Tabernacles, qui célébrait la fin des récoltes, se faisait le 7 e mois en Juda (Le 23:14) et le 8 e dans le Nord (1Ro 12:32). On coupait les tiges à la faucille (De 16:9), comme encore aujourd'hui, en en prenant une poignée d'une main (Esa 17:5, Ps 129:7) et en les tranchant de l'autre à quelque distance du sol ; les tas fauchés, tombés derrière le moissonneur, étaient liés en gerbes, plus ou moins groupées elles-mêmes en meules primitives (Ge 37:7, Ex 22:6, Le 23:10, Jug 15:5, Job 5:26) ; de même les mauvaises herbes pouvaient être liées en bottes destinées au feu (Mt 13:30). Le moissonneur laissait intacts les angles des champs et la matière à glaner par le pauvre et l'étranger (Le 19:9, De 24:19, Ru 2:2 et suivants). Le battage se faisait, soit sur place au fléau (Ru 2:17, Jug 6:11), soit plus souvent sur l'aire du village : (Jer 51:33) un chariot y apportait les gerbes (Am 2:13), qu'on disposait en tapis épais et qu'on faisait fouler par le bétail ; il était interdit de le museler (De 25:4), par égard pour l'animal. On se servait aussi du traîneau à battre, ou du rouleau, formé de plusieurs cylindres garnis de disques ; tous deux sont mentionnés dans Esa 28:27. Pour vanner, on attendait la brise du soir, l'aire étant disposée dans un lieu bien éventé (ce qui en faisait un point vulnérable en temps de guerre : 1Sa 23:1) ; on jetait en l'air, au moyen de grandes pelles ou fourchettes, les épis hachés, la balle (voir ce mot) étant emportée au loin, la paille déviée, et le grain tombant aux pieds du vanneur. (cf. Esa 30:24) Après l'avoir passé au crible (Am 9:9), on le ramassait à la pelle pour le déposer dans des fosses ou des citernes, qui servirent d'abord de greniers (Jer 41:8), plus tard dans de véritables granges et magasins (2Ch 32:28, Pr 3:10, Joe 1:17, Mt 6:26, Lu 12:18).

INSTRUMENTS.

Les instruments agricoles (fig. 4) étaient donc :

la charrue (voir Labour), composée de pièces de bois grossièrement équarries et assemblées, le soc, très réduit, étant la seule partie en fer.

L' aiguillon (voir ce mot), muni d'une pointe en fer à un bout, et quelquefois à l'autre d'une petite pelle pour décrasser la charrue.

Le joug (voir ce mot), formé, pour le bétail foulant le grain, de quelques légères pièces de bois recourbées, et d'une forte barre, fixée aux têtes ou aux cornes pour le bétail au labour.

La faucille (De 16:9), légère et mince, très économe de métal (des faucilles de silex ont été retrouvées à Guérar près Gaza, lieu des magnifiques récoltes d'Isaac : Ge 26:6,12).

Le traîneau à battre, composé de quelques planches assemblées (2 m. de long sur 1 m. de large) et armé en dessous de pierres aiguës, ou de clous et de lames de fer ; le conducteur se tenait debout dessus pour l'alourdir ; il s'usait vite, d'où l'image de Esa 41:15 : « Je fais de toi un traîneau tout neuf. »

Les fourchettes et pelles à vanner et à ramasser le grain étaient en bois ; leur forme, ainsi que celle des divers tamis ou cribles (voir ce mot), n'a jamais beaucoup varié.

La moisson était exposée à divers dangers : vents d'est torrides, en mars et avril (lekhamsîn d'Egypte : Ge 41:6), sécheresse par manque de pluies « tardives » du printemps (Am 4:9), grêle (Ag 2:17), oiseaux (Mt 13:4), plantes parasites (Jer 12:13), maladies, rouille, nielle et en général toutes les plaies décrites dans De 28:21-44 et Am 4:9.

L'importance de l'agriculture dans la vie d'Israël explique le très grand nombre d'illustrations que lui ont empruntées bien des prophètes, en particulier le pâtre Amos, et surtout les paraboles de Jésus-Christ ; l'apôtre Paul lui-même y a parfois recours (1Co 15:36 et suivants).

Sur les autres cultures spécialisées, voir art. : Vigne, Figuier, Olivier, etc. Voir Bertholet, Hist. Civ. Isr., pp. 222SS.

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    • Genèse 26

      6 Isaac lived in Gerar.
      12 Isaac sowed in that land, and reaped in the same year one hundred times what he planted. Yahweh blessed him.

      Genèse 27

      28 God give you of the dew of the sky, of the fatness of the earth, and plenty of grain and new wine.

      Genèse 37

      7 for behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and behold, my sheaf arose and also stood upright; and behold, your sheaves came around, and bowed down to my sheaf."

      Genèse 41

      6 Behold, seven heads of grain, thin and blasted with the east wind, sprung up after them.

      Genèse 49

      25 even by the God of your father, who will help you; by the Almighty, who will bless you, with blessings of heaven above, blessings of the deep that lies below, blessings of the breasts, and of the womb.

      Exode 15

      7 In the greatness of your excellency, you overthrow those who rise up against you. You send forth your wrath. It consumes them as stubble.

      Exode 22

      5 "If a man causes a field or vineyard to be eaten, and lets his animal loose, and it grazes in another man's field, he shall make restitution from the best of his own field, and from the best of his own vineyard.
      6 "If fire breaks out, and catches in thorns so that the shocks of grain, or the standing grain, or the field are consumed; he who kindled the fire shall surely make restitution.

      Exode 23

      10 "For six years you shall sow your land, and shall gather in its increase,
      11 but the seventh year you shall let it rest and lie fallow, that the poor of your people may eat; and what they leave the animal of the field shall eat. In the same way, you shall deal with your vineyard and with your olive grove.

      Lévitique 7

      1 "'This is the law of the trespass offering. It is most holy.
      2 In the place where they kill the burnt offering, he shall kill the trespass offering; and its blood he shall sprinkle around on the altar.
      3 He shall offer all of its fat: the fat tail, and the fat that covers the innards,
      4 and the two kidneys, and the fat that is on them, which is by the loins, and the cover on the liver, with the kidneys, shall he take away;
      5 and the priest shall burn them on the altar for an offering made by fire to Yahweh: it is a trespass offering.
      6 Every male among the priests may eat of it. It shall be eaten in a holy place. It is most holy.
      7 "'As is the sin offering, so is the trespass offering; there is one law for them. The priest who makes atonement with them shall have it.
      8 The priest who offers any man's burnt offering, even the priest shall have for himself the skin of the burnt offering which he has offered.
      9 Every meal offering that is baked in the oven, and all that is dressed in the pan, and on the griddle, shall be the priest's who offers it.
      10 Every meal offering, mixed with oil or dry, belongs to all the sons of Aaron, one as well as another.
      11 "'This is the law of the sacrifice of peace offerings, which one shall offer to Yahweh.
      12 If he offers it for a thanksgiving, then he shall offer with the sacrifice of thanksgiving unleavened cakes mixed with oil, and unleavened wafers anointed with oil, and cakes mixed with oil.
      13 With cakes of leavened bread he shall offer his offering with the sacrifice of his peace offerings for thanksgiving.
      14 Of it he shall offer one out of each offering for a heave offering to Yahweh. It shall be the priest's who sprinkles the blood of the peace offerings.
      15 The flesh of the sacrifice of his peace offerings for thanksgiving shall be eaten on the day of his offering. He shall not leave any of it until the morning.
      16 "'But if the sacrifice of his offering is a vow, or a freewill offering, it shall be eaten on the day that he offers his sacrifice; and on the next day what remains of it shall be eaten:
      17 but what remains of the flesh of the sacrifice on the third day shall be burned with fire.
      18 If any of the flesh of the sacrifice of his peace offerings is eaten on the third day, it will not be accepted, neither shall it be imputed to him who offers it. It will be an abomination, and the soul who eats any of it will bear his iniquity.
      19 "'The flesh that touches any unclean thing shall not be eaten. It shall be burned with fire. As for the flesh, everyone who is clean may eat it;
      20 but the soul who eats of the flesh of the sacrifice of peace offerings, that belongs to Yahweh, having his uncleanness on him, that soul shall be cut off from his people.
      21 When anyone touches any unclean thing, the uncleanness of man, or an unclean animal, or any unclean abomination, and eats some of the flesh of the sacrifice of peace offerings, which belong to Yahweh, that soul shall be cut off from his people.'"
      22 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      23 "Speak to the children of Israel, saying, 'You shall eat no fat, of bull, or sheep, or goat.
      24 The fat of that which dies of itself, and the fat of that which is torn of animals, may be used for any other service, but you shall in no way eat of it.
      25 For whoever eats the fat of the animal, of which men offer an offering made by fire to Yahweh, even the soul who eats it shall be cut off from his people.
      26 You shall not eat any blood, whether it is of bird or of animal, in any of your dwellings.
      27 Whoever it is who eats any blood, that soul shall be cut off from his people.'"
      28 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      29 "Speak to the children of Israel, saying, 'He who offers the sacrifice of his peace offerings to Yahweh shall bring his offering to Yahweh out of the sacrifice of his peace offerings.
      30 With his own hands he shall bring the offerings of Yahweh made by fire. He shall bring the fat with the breast, that the breast may be waved for a wave offering before Yahweh.
      31 The priest shall burn the fat on the altar, but the breast shall be Aaron's and his sons'.
      32 The right thigh you shall give to the priest for a heave offering out of the sacrifices of your peace offerings.
      33 He among the sons of Aaron who offers the blood of the peace offerings, and the fat, shall have the right thigh for a portion.
      34 For the waved breast and the heaved thigh I have taken from the children of Israel out of the sacrifices of their peace offerings, and have given them to Aaron the priest and to his sons as their portion forever from the children of Israel.'"
      35 This is the anointing portion of Aaron, and the anointing portion of his sons, out of the offerings of Yahweh made by fire, in the day when he presented them to minister to Yahweh in the priest's office;
      36 which Yahweh commanded to be given them of the children of Israel, in the day that he anointed them. It is their portion forever throughout their generations.
      37 This is the law of the burnt offering, of the meal offering, and of the sin offering, and of the trespass offering, and of the consecration, and of the sacrifice of peace offerings;
      38 which Yahweh commanded Moses in Mount Sinai, in the day that he commanded the children of Israel to offer their offerings to Yahweh, in the wilderness of Sinai.

      Lévitique 8

      1 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      2 "Take Aaron and his sons with him, and the garments, and the anointing oil, and the bull of the sin offering, and the two rams, and the basket of unleavened bread;
      3 and assemble all the congregation at the door of the Tent of Meeting."
      4 Moses did as Yahweh commanded him; and the congregation was assembled at the door of the Tent of Meeting.
      5 Moses said to the congregation, "This is the thing which Yahweh has commanded to be done."
      6 Moses brought Aaron and his sons, and washed them with water.
      7 He put the coat on him, tied the sash on him, clothed him with the robe, put the ephod on him, and he tied the skillfully woven band of the ephod on him, and fastened it to him with it.
      8 He placed the breastplate on him; and in the breastplate he put the Urim and the Thummim.
      9 He set the turban on his head; and on the turban, in front, he set the golden plate, the holy crown; as Yahweh commanded Moses.
      10 Moses took the anointing oil, and anointed the tabernacle and all that was in it, and sanctified them.
      11 He sprinkled it on the altar seven times, and anointed the altar and all its vessels, and the basin and its base, to sanctify them.
      12 He poured some of the anointing oil on Aaron's head, and anointed him, to sanctify him.
      13 Moses brought Aaron's sons, and clothed them with coats, and tied sashes on them, and put headbands on them; as Yahweh commanded Moses.
      14 He brought the bull of the sin offering, and Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the head of the bull of the sin offering.
      15 He killed it; and Moses took the blood, and put it around on the horns of the altar with his finger, and purified the altar, and poured out the blood at the base of the altar, and sanctified it, to make atonement for it.
      16 He took all the fat that was on the innards, and the cover of the liver, and the two kidneys, and their fat; and Moses burned it on the altar.
      17 But the bull, and its skin, and its flesh, and its dung, he burned with fire outside the camp; as Yahweh commanded Moses.
      18 He presented the ram of the burnt offering: and Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the head of the ram.
      19 He killed it; and Moses sprinkled the blood around on the altar.
      20 He cut the ram into its pieces; and Moses burned the head, and the pieces, and the fat.
      21 He washed the innards and the legs with water; and Moses burned the whole ram on the altar. It was a burnt offering for a pleasant aroma. It was an offering made by fire to Yahweh; as Yahweh commanded Moses.
      22 He presented the other ram, the ram of consecration: and Aaron and his sons laid their hands on the head of the ram.
      23 He killed it; and Moses took some of its blood, and put it on the tip of Aaron's right ear, and on the thumb of his right hand, and on the great toe of his right foot.
      24 He brought Aaron's sons; and Moses put some of the blood on the tip of their right ear, and on the thumb of their right hand, and on the great toe of their right foot; and Moses sprinkled the blood around on the altar.
      25 He took the fat, and the fat tail, and all the fat that was on the innards, and the cover of the liver, and the two kidneys, and their fat, and the right thigh;
      26 and out of the basket of unleavened bread, that was before Yahweh, he took one unleavened cake, and one cake of oiled bread, and one wafer, and placed them on the fat, and on the right thigh.
      27 He put all these in Aaron's hands and in his sons' hands, and waved them for a wave offering before Yahweh.
      28 Moses took them from their hands, and burned them on the altar on the burnt offering. They were a consecration for a pleasant aroma. It was an offering made by fire to Yahweh.
      29 Moses took the breast, and waved it for a wave offering before Yahweh. It was Moses' portion of the ram of consecration, as Yahweh commanded Moses.
      30 Moses took some of the anointing oil, and some of the blood which was on the altar, and sprinkled it on Aaron, on his garments, and on his sons, and on his sons' garments with him, and sanctified Aaron, his garments, and his sons, and his sons' garments with him.
      31 Moses said to Aaron and to his sons, "Boil the flesh at the door of the Tent of Meeting, and there eat it and the bread that is in the basket of consecration, as I commanded, saying, 'Aaron and his sons shall eat it.'
      32 What remains of the flesh and of the bread you shall burn with fire.
      33 You shall not go out from the door of the Tent of Meeting seven days, until the days of your consecration are fulfilled: for he shall consecrate you seven days.
      34 What has been done this day, so Yahweh has commanded to do, to make atonement for you.
      35 You shall stay at the door of the Tent of Meeting day and night seven days, and keep Yahweh's command, that you don't die: for so I am commanded."
      36 Aaron and his sons did all the things which Yahweh commanded by Moses.

      Lévitique 19

      9 "'When you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not wholly reap the corners of your field, neither shall you gather the gleanings of your harvest.
      19 "'You shall keep my statutes. "'You shall not crossbreed different kinds of animals. "'you shall not sow your field with two kinds of seed; "'neither shall there come upon on you a garment made of two kinds of material.

      Lévitique 23

      10 "Speak to the children of Israel, and tell them, 'When you have come into the land which I give to you, and shall reap its the harvest, then you shall bring the sheaf of the first fruits of your harvest to the priest:
      14 You shall eat neither bread, nor roasted grain, nor fresh grain, until this same day, until you have brought the offering of your God. This is a statute forever throughout your generations in all your dwellings.

      Lévitique 25

      4 but in the seventh year there shall be a Sabbath of solemn rest for the land, a Sabbath to Yahweh. You shall not sow your field or prune your vineyard.
      28 But if he isn't able to get it back for himself, then what he has sold shall remain in the hand of him who has bought it until the Year of Jubilee: and in the Jubilee it shall be released, and he shall return to his property.

      Lévitique 26

      13 I am Yahweh your God, who brought you forth out of the land of Egypt, that you should not be their slaves; and I have broken the bars of your yoke, and made you go upright.

      Lévitique 27

      1 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      16 "'If a man dedicates to Yahweh part of the field of his possession, then your valuation shall be according to the seed for it: the sowing of a homer of barley shall be valued at fifty shekels of silver.

      Josué 17

      15 Joshua said to them, "If you are a great people, go up to the forest, and clear land for yourself there in the land of the Perizzites and of the Rephaim; since the hill country of Ephraim is too narrow for you."

      Juges 6

      11 The angel of Yahweh came, and sat under the oak which was in Ophrah, that pertained to Joash the Abiezrite: and his son Gideon was beating out wheat in the winepress, to hide it from the Midianites.

      Juges 15

      5 When he had set the brands on fire, he let them go into the standing grain of the Philistines, and burnt up both the shocks and the standing grain, and also the olive groves.

      Ruth 2

      2 Ruth the Moabitess said to Naomi, "Let me now go to the field, and glean among the ears of grain after him in whose sight I shall find favor." She said to her, "Go, my daughter."
      17 So she gleaned in the field until evening; and she beat out that which she had gleaned, and it was about an ephah of barley.

      1 Samuel 6

      7 "Now therefore take and prepare yourselves a new cart, and two milk cows, on which there has come no yoke; and tie the cows to the cart, and bring their calves home from them;
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