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ART

1. L'art préhistorique palestinien est beaucoup moins développé que d'autres, par ex. celui du Languedoc. On y trouve cependant un outillage paléolithique très primitif : des coups de poing analogues à ceux du chelléen, des racloirs, des perçoirs et des lames tranchantes pour travailler les peaux de bêtes (cf. moustérien). Ces outils se perfectionnent peu à peu (cf. magdalénien) : des formes nouvelles (scies, poinçons, aiguilles) apparaissent, « mais l'art du Palestinien de ces temps reculés paraît être orienté tout entier vers la fabrication des objets de parure ; il perce et orne des coquilles actuelles ou fossiles (prédilection pour les oursins fossiles), dont il fabrique des amulettes ou des colliers » (L. Perrier, la Préhistoire de la Palestine et la Bible, p. 11). Quoique la Palestine soit riche en argiles rouges, le Palestinien du néolithique, habile à polir les haches, l'est beaucoup moins dans le travail de la poterie : vases lourds, en pâte mal cuite, ornés ultérieurement d'incrustations de coquilles et de stries faites avec des pointes de silex. « L'industrie et les arts cananéens marquent un sérieux progrès sur la période néolithique. Les potiers connaissent l'usage du tour. La céramique devient très régulière, ses formes sont symétriques et élégantes » (L. Perrier, id., p. 23, cf. H. Vincent, Canaan)

2. Les premières préoccupations artistiques des Hébreux furent donc d'ordre pratique ; on pourrait en trouver aussi dans le costume. Mais quant aux beaux-arts proprement dits, les Israélites ne les ont cultivés que très tard et dans une mesure très limitée. Ceux des peuples leurs voisins étant comme le véhicule de l'idolâtrie (voir ce mot), l'interdiction par la Loi des images taillées et figures des choses du ciel et de la terre risquant de devenir objet de culte (Ex 20:4 et suivant, De 5:8 et suivant) les empêcha de se livrer à la sculpture et à la peinture (voir Bertholet, Hist. Civ. Isr., p. 339). Le besoin ne s'en fit guère sentir, d'ailleurs, dans ce peuple agricole, jusqu'à ce que la royauté commençât les constructions de luxe. C'est très exceptionnellement qu'on voit des Israélites adopter les théraphim cananéens : (Ge 31:19, Jug 17:5,1Sa 19:13) fétiches ou idoles domestiques, primitivement en calcaire, plus tard en terre cuite ou en bois, de forme allongée à tête sphérique, les membres marqués par des incisions. Le culte israélite ne devait pas du reste exclure d'une façon absolue toute espèce de reproduction plastique. Les fouilles de Thaanac et de Méguiddo ont livré des spécimens de sculptures israélites : lions, chérubins, etc. Dans les palais royaux et le temple de Salomon s'exercent les influences assyrienne et égyptienne par l'intermédiaire des artistes phéniciens auxquels Israël a recours, faute d'art original. Ils introduisent des revêtements de bois et d'or travaillés dont les bas-reliefs ne représentent pas seulement des motifs végétaux : palmes, coloquintes, etc., mais aussi des chérubins (1Ro 6:18,29) ; ce motif (personnages humains ailés) paraissait sans doute autorisé par la place d'honneur accordée aux deux chérubins d'or disposés sur l'arche de l'alliance (Ex 25:18-22) et aux deux autres dressés dans le lieu très saint (1Ro 6:23-28,2Ch 3:10-13), symboles de la présence invisible de l'Éternel. Le bassin de métal, appelé mer de fonte ou d'airain, était posé sur douze statues de boeufs (2Ch 4:4). Un grand rôle est aussi attribué par les textes sacerdotaux à Betsaléel dans les oeuvres artistiques intéressant le Tabernacle (Ex 31:1-6 35:30-35) ; comp. les descriptions élaborées de (Ex 25:11 28:11 39:3-7). A part ces éléments d'art où les créatures, toujours représentées comme subalternes, ne risquaient pas de provoquer à l'idolâtrie, les auteurs sacrés condamnent sans réserve toute image (voir ce mot), objet de culte : le veau d'or d'Aaron (Ex 32), ceux de Jéroboam (1Ro 12:26-32, Am 8:14), les statues détruites par Josias (2Ro 23:12-15), même le serpent de Moïse lorsqu'il fut adoré (2Ro 18:4). Ézéchiel exprime son horreur pour les figures ciselées et peintes de vermillon que ses visions lui montrent dans le Temple (Eze 23:14, cf. Eze 8:10). Cette aversion Israélite pour l'image taillée s'exprime énergiquement dans l'apocryphe Sapience ou Sagesse de Salomon, qui tout en proscrivant les idoles artistiques ou non artistiques (Sag 13:10), semble voir dans les beaux-arts la propre cause de l'idolâtrie (Sag 14:12 15:4 et suivants). Le droit rabbinique autorisa l'introduction de formes animales dans l'ornementation des synagogues, mais à certaines époques les autorités juives en firent détruire (Dalman, Itin., p. 190) ; le rigorisme varia beaucoup à cet égard. Lorsque saint Paul se trouve dans Athènes, la ville de l'art par excellence, son impression dominante est l'indignation contre les innombrables idoles, et dans son discours au pied de l'Acropole il oppose le vrai Dieu aux sculptures de l'art et du génie humains (Ac 17:16,29). On peut donc dire que sans avoir été complètement réfractaire aux arts plastiques, le peuple juif y a vu beaucoup moins un objet d'intérêt qu'un risque pour la piété, puisque l'art de son temps c'était surtout le culte des faux dieux. Dans un domaine où l'on pourrait penser que l'esprit juif devrait trouver quelque compensation à son abstention : les tableaux des prophètes et des apocalypses, la vision reste cérébrale ; elle ne retient les formes que pour leur valeur de symboles et se tient en dehors de l'esthétique. La plupart de ces tableaux, qui juxtaposent souvent des éléments hétéroclites et incohérents, ne fourniraient au dessin ou à la sculpture que des monstruosités. (voir Eze 1, Da 7, Ap 4 etc.)

3. Il est d'autant plus remarquable que le christianisme, issu d'un sol aussi peu favorable aux arts plastiques que l'était le judaïsme, n'ait jamais pris position contre l'art lui-même ; la condamnation que Platon en prononce à la fin de sa République n'apparaît nulle part dans le N.T., et les Pères de l'Eglise des premiers siècles, tout en mettant les fidèles en garde contre le paganisme, ne leur ont jamais interdit les goûts esthétiques. Par contre, l'incarnation, en faisant « voir » au monde la « grâce et la vérité », la « gloire du Fils unique venu d'auprès du Père » (Jn 1:17,14), a donné un essor nouveau à tous les arts de l'humanité. Dès l'époque des Catacombes, le dessin s'appliqua à représenter le Sauveur sous forme de symboles, puis comme le bon Berger (fig. 13 ; voir aussi J. -H. Meille, L'image de Jésus dans l'Histoire et dans l'Art). Lorsqu'au IV e siècle, Paulin de Noie fit peindre des scènes de la Bible sur les murs de sa basilique, son but était d'enseigner par la vue l'Histoire sainte aux ignorants ; loin de manifester par cette introduction de l'art dans l'Église un relâchement de la piété, il voulait au contraire ramener les agapes à la spiritualité primitive. Critiqué à ce sujet par un chef de l'Église, il se justifia par une réponse en vers qui renferme ces mots significatifs : Pocula rarescunl... En présence des scènes bibliques, on buvait moins !

La légende plus tardive qui a fait de Luc un peintre exprime cette idée juste que les Évangiles--celui de Luc très particulièrement--ont fourni en grand nombre aux artistes des sujets dignes des plus beaux chefs-d'oeuvre. C'est que la peinture, et plus encore la musique et la poésie, expriment l'âme d'une façon plus personnelle que la sculpture et l'architecture ; dans ces divers domaines, l'âme hébraïque, l'âme juive et l'âme chrétienne ont apporté comme telles leur fort appréciable contribution au patrimoine artistique de l'humanité. Voir Architecture, Instruments de musique, Chant, Poésie. P. A. et Jn L.

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      Genèse 31

      19 Now Laban had gone to shear his sheep: and Rachel stole the teraphim that were her father's.

      Exode 20

      4 "You shall not make for yourselves an idol, nor any image of anything that is in the heavens above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth:

      Exode 25

      11 You shall overlay it with pure gold. You shall overlay it inside and outside, and you shall make a gold molding around it.
      18 You shall make two cherubim of hammered gold. You shall make them at the two ends of the mercy seat.
      19 Make one cherub at the one end, and one cherub at the other end. You shall make the cherubim on its two ends of one piece with the mercy seat.
      20 The cherubim shall spread out their wings upward, covering the mercy seat with their wings, with their faces toward one another. The faces of the cherubim shall be toward the mercy seat.
      21 You shall put the mercy seat on top of the ark, and in the ark you shall put the testimony that I will give you.
      22 There I will meet with you, and I will tell you from above the mercy seat, from between the two cherubim which are on the ark of the testimony, all that I command you for the children of Israel.

      Exode 28

      11 With the work of an engraver in stone, like the engravings of a signet, you shall engrave the two stones, according to the names of the children of Israel: you shall make them to be enclosed in settings of gold.

      Exode 31

      1 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      2 "Behold, I have called by name Bezalel the son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah:
      3 and I have filled him with the Spirit of God, in wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and in all kinds of workmanship,
      4 to devise skillful works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass,
      5 and in cutting of stones for setting, and in carving of wood, to work in all kinds of workmanship.
      6 I, behold, I have appointed with him Oholiab, the son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan; and in the heart of all who are wise-hearted I have put wisdom, that they may make all that I have commanded you:

      Exode 32

      1 When the people saw that Moses delayed to come down from the mountain, the people gathered themselves together to Aaron, and said to him, "Come, make us gods, which shall go before us; for as for this Moses, the man who brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we don't know what has become of him."
      2 Aaron said to them, "Take off the golden rings, which are in the ears of your wives, of your sons, and of your daughters, and bring them to me."
      3 All the people took off the golden rings which were in their ears, and brought them to Aaron.
      4 He received what they handed him, and fashioned it with an engraving tool, and made it a molten calf; and they said, "These are your gods, Israel, which brought you up out of the land of Egypt."
      5 When Aaron saw this, he built an altar before it; and Aaron made a proclamation, and said, "Tomorrow shall be a feast to Yahweh."
      6 They rose up early on the next day, and offered burnt offerings, and brought peace offerings; and the people sat down to eat and to drink, and rose up to play.
      7 Yahweh spoke to Moses, "Go, get down; for your people, who you brought up out of the land of Egypt, have corrupted themselves!
      8 They have turned aside quickly out of the way which I commanded them. They have made themselves a molten calf, and have worshiped it, and have sacrificed to it, and said, 'These are your gods, Israel, which brought you up out of the land of Egypt.'"
      9 Yahweh said to Moses, "I have seen these people, and behold, they are a stiff-necked people.
      10 Now therefore leave me alone, that my wrath may burn hot against them, and that I may consume them; and I will make of you a great nation."
      11 Moses begged Yahweh his God, and said, "Yahweh, why does your wrath burn hot against your people, that you have brought out of the land of Egypt with great power and with a mighty hand?
      12 Why should the Egyptians speak, saying, 'He brought them forth for evil, to kill them in the mountains, and to consume them from the surface of the earth?' Turn from your fierce wrath, and repent of this evil against your people.
      13 Remember Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, your servants, to whom you swore by your own self, and said to them, 'I will multiply your seed as the stars of the sky, and all this land that I have spoken of I will give to your seed, and they shall inherit it forever.'"
      14 Yahweh repented of the evil which he said he would do to his people.
      15 Moses turned, and went down from the mountain, with the two tablets of the testimony in his hand; tablets that were written on both their sides; on the one side and on the other they were written.
      16 The tablets were the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God, engraved on the tables.
      17 When Joshua heard the noise of the people as they shouted, he said to Moses, "There is the noise of war in the camp."
      18 He said, "It isn't the voice of those who shout for victory, neither is it the voice of those who cry for being overcome; but the noise of those who sing that I hear."
      19 It happened, as soon as he came near to the camp, that he saw the calf and the dancing: and Moses' anger grew hot, and he threw the tablets out of his hands, and broke them beneath the mountain.
      20 He took the calf which they had made, and burnt it with fire, ground it to powder, and scattered it on the water, and made the children of Israel drink of it.
      21 Moses said to Aaron, "What did these people do to you, that you have brought a great sin on them?"
      22 Aaron said, "Don't let the anger of my lord grow hot. You know the people, that they are set on evil.
      23 For they said to me, 'Make us gods, which shall go before us; for as for this Moses, the man who brought us up out of the land of Egypt, we don't know what has become of him.'
      24 I said to them, 'Whoever has any gold, let them take it off:' so they gave it to me; and I threw it into the fire, and out came this calf."
      25 When Moses saw that the people had broken loose, (for Aaron had let them loose for a derision among their enemies),
      26 then Moses stood in the gate of the camp, and said, "Whoever is on Yahweh's side, come to me!" All the sons of Levi gathered themselves together to him.
      27 He said to them, "Thus says Yahweh, the God of Israel, 'Every man put his sword on his thigh, and go back and forth from gate to gate throughout the camp, and every man kill his brother, and every man his companion, and every man his neighbor.'"
      28 The sons of Levi did according to the word of Moses: and there fell of the people that day about three thousand men.
      29 Moses said, "Consecrate yourselves today to Yahweh, yes, every man against his son, and against his brother; that he may bestow on you a blessing this day."
      30 It happened on the next day, that Moses said to the people, "You have sinned a great sin. Now I will go up to Yahweh. Perhaps I shall make atonement for your sin."
      31 Moses returned to Yahweh, and said, "Oh, this people have sinned a great sin, and have made themselves gods of gold.
      32 Yet now, if you will, forgive their sin--and if not, please blot me out of your book which you have written."
      33 Yahweh said to Moses, "Whoever has sinned against me, him will I blot out of my book.
      34 Now go, lead the people to the place of which I have spoken to you. Behold, my angel shall go before you. Nevertheless in the day when I punish, I will punish them for their sin."
      35 Yahweh struck the people, because they made the calf, which Aaron made.

      Exode 35

      30 Moses said to the children of Israel, "Behold, Yahweh has called by name Bezalel the son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah.

      Exode 39

      3 They beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires, to work it in the blue, in the purple, in the scarlet, and in the fine linen, the work of the skillful workman.

      Juges 17

      5 The man Micah had a house of gods, and he made an ephod, and teraphim, and consecrated one of his sons, who became his priest.

      1 Samuel 19

      13 Michal took the teraphim, and laid it in the bed, and put a pillow of goats' hair at its head, and covered it with the clothes.

      2 Chroniques 3

      10 In the most holy house he made two cherubim of image work; and they overlaid them with gold.
      11 The wings of the cherubim were twenty cubits long: the wing of the one was five cubits, reaching to the wall of the house; and the other wing was five cubits, reaching to the wing of the other cherub.
      12 The wing of the other cherub was five cubits, reaching to the wall of the house; and the other wing was five cubits, joining to the wing of the other cherub.
      13 The wings of these cherubim spread themselves forth twenty cubits: and they stood on their feet, and their faces were toward the house.

      2 Chroniques 4

      4 It stood on twelve oxen, three looking toward the north, and three looking toward the west, and three looking toward the south, and three looking toward the east: and the sea was set on them above, and all their hinder parts were inward.

      Ezéchiel 1

      1 Now it happened in the thirtieth year, in the fourth month, in the fifth of the month, as I was among the captives by the river Chebar, that the heavens were opened, and I saw visions of God .
      2 In the fifth of the month, which was the fifth year of king Jehoiachin's captivity,
      3 the word of Yahweh came expressly to Ezekiel the priest, the son of Buzi, in the land of the Chaldeans by the river Chebar; and the hand of Yahweh was there on him.
      4 I looked, and behold, a stormy wind came out of the north, a great cloud, with flashing lightning, and a brightness around it, and out of its midst as it were glowing metal, out of the midst of the fire.
      5 Out of its midst came the likeness of four living creatures. This was their appearance: they had the likeness of a man.
      6 Everyone had four faces, and each one of them had four wings.
      7 Their feet were straight feet; and the sole of their feet was like the sole of a calf's foot; and they sparkled like burnished brass.
      8 They had the hands of a man under their wings on their four sides; and the four of them had their faces and their wings thus:
      9 their wings were joined one to another; they didn't turn when they went; each one went straight forward.
      10 As for the likeness of their faces, they had the face of a man; and the four of them had the face of a lion on the right side; and the four of them had the face of an ox on the left side; the four of them also had the face of an eagle.
      11 Such were their faces. Their wings were spread out above. Two wings of each one touched another, and two covered their bodies.
      12 Each one went straight forward: where the spirit was to go, they went; they didn't turn when they went.
      13 As for the likeness of the living creatures, their appearance was like burning coals of fire, like the appearance of torches: the fire went up and down among the living creatures; and the fire was bright, and out of the fire went forth lightning.
      14 The living creatures ran and returned as the appearance of a flash of lightning.
      15 Now as I saw the living creatures, behold, one wheel on the earth beside the living creatures, for each of the four faces of it.
      16 The appearance of the wheels and their work was like a beryl: and the four of them had one likeness; and their appearance and their work was as it were a wheel within a wheel.
      17 When they went, they went in their four directions: they didn't turn when they went.
      18 As for their rims, they were high and dreadful; and the four of them had their rims full of eyes all around.
      19 When the living creatures went, the wheels went beside them; and when the living creatures were lifted up from the earth, the wheels were lifted up.
      20 Wherever the spirit was to go, they went; there was the spirit to go: and the wheels were lifted up beside them; for the spirit of the living creature was in the wheels.
      21 When those went, these went; and when those stood, these stood; and when those were lifted up from the earth, the wheels were lifted up beside them: for the spirit of the living creature was in the wheels.
      22 Over the head of the living creature there was the likeness of an expanse, like the awesome crystal to look on, stretched forth over their heads above.
      23 Under the expanse were their wings straight, the one toward the other: each one had two which covered on this side, and every one had two which covered on that side, their bodies.
      24 When they went, I heard the noise of their wings like the noise of great waters, like the voice of the Almighty, a noise of tumult like the noise of an army: when they stood, they let down their wings.
      25 There was a voice above the expanse that was over their heads: when they stood, they let down their wings.
      26 Above the expanse that was over their heads was the likeness of a throne, as the appearance of a sapphire stone; and on the likeness of the throne was a likeness as the appearance of a man on it above.
      27 I saw as it were glowing metal, as the appearance of fire within it all around, from the appearance of his waist and upward; and from the appearance of his waist and downward I saw as it were the appearance of fire, and there was brightness around him.
      28 As the appearance of the rainbow that is in the cloud in the day of rain, so was the appearance of the brightness all around. This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory of Yahweh. When I saw it, I fell on my face, and I heard a voice of one that spoke.

      Ezéchiel 8

      10 So I went in and saw; and see, every form of creeping things, and abominable animals, and all the idols of the house of Israel, portrayed around on the wall.

      Ezéchiel 23

      14 She increased her prostitution; for she saw men portrayed on the wall, the images of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion,

      Daniel 7

      1 In the first year of Belshazzar king of Babylon Daniel had a dream and visions of his head on his bed: then he wrote the dream and told the sum of the matters.
      2 Daniel spoke and said, I saw in my vision by night, and, behold, the four winds of the sky broke forth on the great sea.
      3 Four great animals came up from the sea, diverse one from another.
      4 The first was like a lion, and had eagle's wings: I saw until its wings were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made to stand on two feet as a man; and a man's heart was given to it.
      5 Behold, another animal, a second, like a bear; and it was raised up on one side, and three ribs were in its mouth between its teeth: and they said thus to it, Arise, devour much flesh.
      6 After this I saw, and behold, another, like a leopard, which had on its back four wings of a bird; the animal had also four heads; and dominion was given to it.
      7 After this I saw in the night visions, and, behold, a fourth animal, awesome and powerful, and strong exceedingly; and it had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke in pieces, and stamped the residue with its feet: and it was diverse from all the animals that were before it; and it had ten horns.
      8 I considered the horns, and behold, there came up among them another horn, a little one, before which three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots: and behold, in this horn were eyes like the eyes of a man, and a mouth speaking great things.
      9 I saw until thrones were placed, and one who was ancient of days sat: his clothing was white as snow, and the hair of his head like pure wool; his throne was fiery flames, [and] its wheels burning fire.
      10 A fiery stream issued and came forth from before him: thousands of thousands ministered to him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him: the judgment was set, and the books were opened.
      11 I saw at that time because of the voice of the great words which the horn spoke; I saw even until the animal was slain, and its body destroyed, and it was given to be burned with fire.
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