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Dictionnaire Biblique de Top Bible

DEUIL ET RITES FUNÉRAIRES

La Bible contient un grand nombre d'allusions aux diverses manifestations du deuil chez les Hébreux, mais rares y sont les tableaux d'ensemble. Citons, parmi ceux qui nous donnent le plus de détails, Ge 37:34, De 14:1,2Sa 1:3:31 et suivants, Eze 24:16, Jer 16:6 et suivant, et le livre de Tobit. Un grand nombre de coutumes funéraires se sont du reste perpétuées en Orient jusqu'à nos jours.

1.

Soins aux morts.

Dès que le dernier soupir s'est exhalé des lèvres du moribond, on lui ferme les yeux (Ge 46:4) ; parfois même on obture, à l'aide de tampons, les autres ouvertures du corps ; cela s'appelle « fermer le mort ». Plusieurs écrits talmudiques s'élèvent contre cette habitude ; il semble que par excès de zèle, et sans doute pour empêcher l'esprit de s'échapper du corps, on étouffât parfois le mourant en lui bouchant ainsi les narines et la bouche. Puis on lave le cadavre (Ac 9:37) ; on l'enveloppe dans un linceul blanc (Mr 15:46) après l'avoir oint de substances aromatiques (Jn 19:40). Notons aussi la coutume de baiser le mort (Ge 50:1), marque de tendresse et de respect. Les pieds et les mains liés de bandelettes, le corps parfumé de myrrhe et d'aloès, la tête recouverte d'un suaire (Jn 11:44), le mort est déposé dans un cercueil ouvert ou sur une bière (Lu 7:14) appelée en hébreu mittâh ; il est ainsi transporté par des amis (Ac 5:6,10) jusqu'au lieu de la sépulture. Les parents et connaissances suivent la bière, se livrant à de bruyantes démonstrations de douleur et poussant des cris aigus ; le cortège est accompagné de pleureuses de profession (Jer 9:17), de joueurs de flûte (Mt 9:23).

L'ensevelissement se fait le jour même, environ huit heures après le décès ; aux funérailles de certains grands personnages, on brûle des aromates. Le corps est mis si possible dans un caveau de famille : être enseveli « avec ses pères » est le voeu le plus ardent (Ge 47:29-31). Si l'on ne couche pas le mort dans un tombeau, on élève sur le lieu de l'inhumation un monceau de pierres (2Sa 18:17), ou l'on marque l'emplacement par une dalle dressée (Ge 35:20). Comme inscription on grave, en général, le nom du défunt, souvent l'indication de ses ascendants, du mari, parfois on y ajoute une formule de louange. Il est question plusieurs fois de parfums brûlés en l'honneur des rois défunts (Jer 34:5,2Ch 16:14 21:19). Quant aux offrandes d'aliments aux morts, si Tob 4:17 les recommande pour les justes, Sir 30:18 les condamne en les raillant. Voir Mort, Tombeau.

2.

Vêtement de deuil.

A la nouvelle du deuil qui le frappe, le premier geste de l'Israélite sera de déchirer son vêtement : presque toujours, lorsque ce geste est mentionné dans la Bible, il précède tous les autres (Ge 37:34,2Sa 1:11, Job 1:20). Nous ne pouvons entrer dans la discussion de toutes les explications qui ont été proposées pour rendre compte de ce geste et des différents rites funèbres ; nous pensons pour notre part que l'affligé indiquait par là son intention de se dépouiller de ses vêtements pour revêtir le sac, qui normalement se portait sur le corps nu (Esa 20:2). Le sac dont on se ceint (2Sa 3:31), et non dont on se couvre, était une sorte de pagne, fait d'une étoffe grossière en poils de chèvre, de couleur sombre, qui servait aussi pour la confection des sacs ; ce pagne était cousu autour de la taille (Job 16:15) ou serré par une corde (Esa 3:24). Certains passages font allusion à d'autres vêtements de deuil ou de veuvage (Ge 38:14,2Sa 14:2, Jug 8:5) qui semblent différents du sac. On ôte ses chaussures (Mic 1:8), les porteurs de la bière vont pieds nus ; on arrache son turban, parfois on se rase barbe et cheveux (Am 8:10), ou du moins on couvre sa barbe (Eze 24:17,22) et on se voile la tête (2Sa 15:30). La durée du deuil semble avoir été de trente jours (No 20:29, De 34:8). Les enfants portent le deuil de leurs parents, les maris celui de leur femme et vice versa ; le deuil le plus cruel est celui du fils unique (Jer 6:26, Za 12:10), plus encore du fils unique de veuve (Lu 7:12).

3.

Autres rites.

L'expression de la douleur chez les Hébreux emprunte mille formes, dont nous signalerons ici les plus courantes et les plus typiques. On se met la main sur la tête (2Sa 13:19) ; en apprenant une mauvaise nouvelle, on se lève de son siège pour aller s'asseoir sur la terre nue ou sur un tas de cendres (Job 1:20, Jon 3:6, La 2:10). Au reste, la terre et la cendre jouent un grand rôle dans le rituel du deuil, on s'en couvre la tête ou le corps tout entier, on s'y roule, on saisit de la poussière que l'on jette vers le ciel (Job 2:12). On se frappe la poitrine, on se déchire, on se fait des incisions (voir ce mot), coutume étrangère qu'à plusieurs reprises les livres saints condamnent (De 14:1) ; il est reçu que pendant tout le temps du deuil, il ne faut pas se laver, ne pas oindre son corps (Da 10:3), ne pas se faire les ongles ; la démarche de l'homme en deuil doit être grave et lente (1Ro 21:27). Voir Gestes.

Pour marquer sa douleur, l'Hébreu ne prend d'abord aucune nourriture et ce jeûne parfois se prolonge plusieurs jours (2Sa 1:12,1Sa 31:13). On n'est pas d'accord sur le fait de la célébration d'un repas funèbre ; (cf. Os 9:4) toutefois les expressions : manger le pain du deuil et boire la coupe de consolation (Jer 16:7) semblent indiquer que tout en apportant leurs consolations, les amis offraient en témoignage de sympathie des aliments ou un breuvage à l'homme éprouvé par le deuil.

4.

Les lamentations.

Cris, gémissements, vociférations accompagnaient toute manifestation funèbre. La lamentation pouvait prendre deux formes différentes : la tnisped, cri aigu, hurlement prolongé (Za 12:11), que Michée (Mic 1:8) compare au glapissement du chacal, au cri de l'autruche ; la qînâ, sorte de mélopée accompagnant une poésie funèbre pour chanter les louanges du défunt. La plus célèbre de ces lamentations est la complainte de David sur Jonathan (2Sa 1:17-27) ; comp. les complaintes sur Josias (2Ch 35:25).

5.

Purification.

Tout deuil se clôturait par une cérémonie purificatrice. La loi, en effet, déclare impurs le cadavre, le tombeau, celui qui les approche ou celui qui les touche, et impose des purifications à ceux qui ont eu quelque contact avec un mort (No 31:19).

6.

L'Évangile

Jésus-Christ recommande la discrétion dans les manifestations publiques du jeûne et probablement du deuil (Mt 6:16-18, Mr 5:38 et suivants) ; devant le tombeau de son ami Lazare, il verse des larmes silencieuses (Jn 11:35). Paul ne veut pas que les chrétiens manifestent leur affliction comme ceux qui n'ont point d'espérance (1Th 4:13 et suivant), et Jean salue le ciel nouveau et la terre nouvelle d'où le deuil, ses larmes et ses cris seront à jamais bannis, car la mort ne sera plus (Ap 21:4). P. B. -M.

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