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ISRAËL (Histoire et Religion 10.)

9.

L'empire grec et les Juifs.

Un autre personnage important entre maintenant en scène : Alexandre le Grand (356-323), fils de Philippe de Macédoine qui, s'étant rendu maître de la Grèce, se tourna du côté de l'Orient. Ayant vaincu les armées de Darius dans deux batailles décisive : au Granique (333) et à Issus (332), il vit le vaste empire perse livré à sa merci. Malgré sa mort prématurée à l'âge de 35 ans, et quoique sa brève carrière militaire n'ait pas satisfait toutes ses ambitions, elle exerça sur la civilisation mondiale une influence somme toute salutaire en rapprochant étroitement deux races différentes. Nulle part ailleurs les conséquences de ce rapprochement ne sont plus visibles que dans l'histoire du peuple juif. A la mort d'Alexandre (voir ce mot), le vaste empire qu'il avait conquis fut partagé entre ses généraux. Les deux fractions de ce partage qui nous intéressent sont l'Egypte et la Syrie, gouvernées par les Ptolémées et les Séleucides. Ainsi commença la période grecque de l'histoire des Juifs. Pendant le premier siècle après la mort d'Alexandre, la Palestine, placée sous la domination égyptienne, semble avoir été traitée avec justice. Les intrigues et les guerres étaient fréquentes entre l'Egypte et la Syrie (Da 11) et les Juifs, une fois de plus, servirent de gage à deux puissants acteurs. Plus grave que ces misérables querelles était le conflit spirituel entre l'hébraïsme et l'hellénisme. La ville d'Alexandrie (voir ce mot) fut bâtie et devint un centre commerçant et intellectuel très important. Ses habitants comprenaient des Égyptiens, des Grecs et des Juifs ; la langue et la culture grecques prédominaient. Les Juifs, qui furent encouragés à s'y établir, formèrent une partie notable de la population et furent amenés à demander une traduction grecque des écrits hébraïques. La première traduction de la Bible (dite des LXX ou Septante) remonte à 250 environ av. J. -C. La raison principale était sans doute que les Juifs avaient besoin de posséder leur loi dans la langue qu'ils parlaient habituellement. Ils ne tardèrent pas à vanter sa supériorité et son caractère original et à la comparer avec d'autres législations anciennes. Ce travail demanda un temps considérable. Les livres traduits les premiers et auxquels ils -attachaient le plus d'importance furent les cinq qu'ils attribuaient à Moïse. Bien qu'elle ne fût pas écrite dans le grec le plus pur, cette traduction servit un but élevé, devint la Bible des Juifs dispersés et fut plus tard utilisée, même en Palestine. L'apôtre Paul et les premiers chrétiens en firent un grand usage. La langue et les moeurs grecques s'étaient largement répandues en Egypte, en Palestine et en Syrie. L'influence du théâtre, des jeux du cirque et des écoles grecques se faisait sentir. Nous ne pouvons raconter avec précision l'histoire de la Synagogue (voir ce mot) à ses débuts. Mais nous savons que la religion des Juifs commençait à être enseignée, que, spécialement dans les localités éloignées du temple, on comprenait le devoir d'étudier les Saintes Écritures et d'instruire la jeunesse. Ainsi deux formes différentes de la pensée et de la vie allaient bientôt se trouver en présence et les conséquences de cette rencontre devaient se prolonger dans l'humanité. L'hellénisme n'était pas du type le plus pur, mais sa spontanéité, sa souplesse attiraient les jeunes intelligences, qui commençaient à trouver le joug de la loi lourd et fastidieux. Il y eut ainsi, au III e siècle, une période de calme relatif, de prospérité croissante, de « pénétration pacifique ». Juifs et Grecs se trouvaient réunis, prenaient part à l'activité civique et partageaient les mêmes divertissements. Ce fut certainement un danger pour le judaïsme traditionnel. Son histoire a maintes fois prouvé que le bien-être et la prospérité lui furent plus nuisibles que les souffrances et les persécutions. A la fin de ce siècle fut écrit le livre remarquable de l'Ecclésiaste ; il l'aurait difficilement été avant la période grecque. C'est l'oeuvre d'un Juif dont le scepticisme et le pessimisme, sans être entièrement nouveaux, sont exposés dans un style moderne qui trahit l'ambiance grecque. La langue de cet ouvrage, fortement imprégnée d'araméen et apparentée aux formes rabbiniques, prouve qu'il parut à une époque tardive et que son attribution à Salomon n'est qu'une invention littéraire. Il n'est puissant ni d'esprit ni de style, mais la période qui le suivit est l'une des plus héroïques de l'histoire des Hébreux. L'influence grecque était considérable et certains pensent qu'elle aurait pu saper lentement l'édifice entier de la loi. Toutefois, lorsqu'une dure épreuve fut imposée aux membres pieux de la nation, on vit bien que le fondement du judaïsme avait été solidement établi.

Au début du siècle suivant, la Palestine passa de la domination égyptienne à la syrienne. L'établissement d'un gouvernement égyptien à Jérusalem avait irrité les Juifs ; ils pensaient qu'ils seraient plus heureux sous le gouvernement des Séleucides. Après l'avoir été, au début, ils furent bientôt menacés, non de tracasseries insignifiantes, mais de la perte totale de leur religion. Si la nation avait été assez étroitement unie pour présenter un front résistant et avait mis sa vie sociale en harmonie avec les principes de probité et de justice enseignés par les prophètes, le péril eût été moins grand. Le parti helléniste favorisait l'influence grecque et désirait la développer. On y trouvait beaucoup de jeunes prêtres qui s'intéressaient davantage aux exercices athlétiques du cirque qu'aux devoirs sacrés de leur ministère. De nombreux Juifs montrèrent bientôt où allaient leurs préférences en échangeant leurs noms hébreux contre des noms grecs. Ainsi Jésua ou Jésus devint Jason. L'une des pratiques qui révoltèrent le plus les Juifs pieux fut le trafic de la charge de grand-prêtre. Au début du règne d'Antiochus IV, un frère d'Onias II le grand-prêtre honoré, avait pris, afin d'être nommé à sa place, le nom de Jason ; il avait offert de payer un tribut plus élevé et promis de donner une somme importante pour la construction d'un gymnase à Jérusalem. Lorsqu'on commence à user de tels procédés, la place est acquise au plus offrant ; des membres du clergé juif doivent se partager la honte d'avoir ainsi déshonoré l'office sacré. La vie nationale était affaiblie et en proie au désordre. Un certain Joseph, fils de Tobie, l'un des premiers « péagers » ou receveurs généraux des impôts, réussit à conserver sa situation pendant vingt-deux ans, amassant de grandes richesses grâce à ses extorsions, et les faisant servir à des usages dépravés. Il laissa un fils, Hyrcan, aussi habile et aussi peu scrupuleux que lui-même. Le problème de la prospérité des méchants pesait lourdement sur les âmes fidèles (Ps 73:3-8). « Riche » semblait presque être devenu synonyme de « méchant », et « pauvre » de « pieux » (Lu 6:20 et suivants). Il semblait qu'avec de si nombreuses causes de faiblesse à l'intérieur, la religion dût être impuissante à réagir, mais les événements prouvèrent que tant d'années d'épreuves n'avaient pas été vaines.

Au début du II e siècle, la puissance croissante de Rome compliquait la situation internationale. Antiochus le Grand (voir art.) dut signer une paix humiliante et payer un tribut aux Romains, ce qui entraîna une aggravation des impôts prélevés sur la Syrie et la Palestine et souvent même des vols commis dans les temples, qui étaient les maisons de banque de l'époque. Antiochus IV monta sur le trône en 170 ; il avait été retenu à Rome, comme otage. Son frère obtint qu'il fût relâché ; mais avant son retour, ce frère ayant été assassiné, la royauté lui échut. Cet Antiochus, appelé soit Épiphane (l'Illustre) soit Épimane (l'Insensé), méritait ces deux titres. Il était énergique, habile, mais aussi farouche et inconstant. Ce fut lui qui accéléra le conflit d'où devait sortir ou la mort du judaïsme ou sa vivante rénovation. Le parti helléniste était favorable au roi et, sans vouloir renoncer à son culte, désirait être « tolérant », acceptant de voir Jérusalem devenir à bien des égards une ville païenne. Ménélas, qui n'appartenait pas à la tribu sacerdotale, étant devenu grand-prêtre à la faveur de l'intrigue et du vol, une violente dissension intérieure en fut la conséquence. On peut en trouver les détails dans 1 Mac, écrit historique de valeur. Deux ans après que le temple eut été dévalisé (168), Antiochus IV instaura par décret le culte et la constitution civile helléniques à Jérusalem. La ville fut livrée au pillage, brûlée et beaucoup de ses habitants furent chassés. Le comble de l'outrage fut l'érection d'un autel païen (au mois de kis-lev, le 25 décembre), pour y sacrifier des porcs, animaux impurs, sur l'autel même des holocaustes (l'abomination de la désolation de Da 9:27 12:1, Matthieu 24:15). Les livres sacrés devaient être détruits, l'observation de la loi mosaïque était un crime ; dans beaucoup de cas il fallait choisir entre l'apostasie et la mort. L'heure était critique ; et pourtant, en dépit de ces persécutions, le judaïsme triompha du danger qui, pendant la longue période de paix sous la domination des Ptolémées, l'avait souvent menacé de perdre la conviction qu'il était le peuple élu à qui Dieu avait confié une mission toute spéciale.

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      Lévitique 25

      1 Yahweh said to Moses in Mount Sinai,
      2 "Speak to the children of Israel, and tell them, 'When you come into the land which I give you, then the land shall keep a Sabbath to Yahweh.
      3 Six years you shall sow your field, and six years you shall prune your vineyard, and gather in its fruits;
      4 but in the seventh year there shall be a Sabbath of solemn rest for the land, a Sabbath to Yahweh. You shall not sow your field or prune your vineyard.
      5 What grows of itself in your harvest you shall not reap, and the grapes of your undressed vine you shall not gather. It shall be a year of solemn rest for the land.
      6 The Sabbath of the land shall be for food for you; for yourself, for your servant, for your maid, for your hired servant, and for your stranger, who lives as a foreigner with you.
      7 For your livestock also, and for the animals that are in your land, shall all its increase be for food.
      8 "'You shall count off seven Sabbaths of years, seven times seven years; and there shall be to you the days of seven Sabbaths of years, even forty-nine years.
      9 Then you shall sound the loud trumpet on the tenth day of the seventh month. On the Day of Atonement you shall sound the trumpet throughout all your land.
      10 You shall make the fiftieth year holy, and proclaim liberty throughout the land to all its inhabitants. It shall be a jubilee to you; and each of you shall return to his own property, and each of you shall return to his family.
      11 That fiftieth year shall be a jubilee to you. In it you shall not sow, neither reap that which grows of itself, nor gather from the undressed vines.
      12 For it is a jubilee; it shall be holy to you. You shall eat of its increase out of the field.
      13 "'In this Year of Jubilee each of you shall return to his property.
      14 "'If you sell anything to your neighbor, or buy from your neighbor, you shall not wrong one another.
      15 According to the number of years after the Jubilee you shall buy from your neighbor. According to the number of years of the crops he shall sell to you.
      16 According to the length of the years you shall increase its price, and according to the shortness of the years you shall diminish its price; for he is selling the number of the crops to you.
      17 You shall not wrong one another; but you shall fear your God: for I am Yahweh your God.
      18 "'Therefore you shall do my statutes, and keep my ordinances and do them; and you shall dwell in the land in safety.
      19 The land shall yield its fruit, and you shall eat your fill, and dwell therein in safety.
      20 If you said, "What shall we eat the seventh year? Behold, we shall not sow, nor gather in our increase";
      21 then I will command my blessing on you in the sixth year, and it shall bring forth fruit for the three years.
      22 You shall sow the eighth year, and eat of the fruits, the old store; until the ninth year, until its fruits come in, you shall eat the old store.
      23 "'The land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for the land is mine; for you are strangers and live as foreigners with me.
      24 In all the land of your possession you shall grant a redemption for the land.
      25 "'If your brother becomes poor, and sells some of his possessions, then his kinsman who is next to him shall come, and redeem that which his brother has sold.
      26 If a man has no one to redeem it, and he becomes prosperous and finds sufficient means to redeem it;
      27 then let him reckon the years since its sale, and restore the surplus to the man to whom he sold it; and he shall return to his property.
      28 But if he isn't able to get it back for himself, then what he has sold shall remain in the hand of him who has bought it until the Year of Jubilee: and in the Jubilee it shall be released, and he shall return to his property.
      29 "'If a man sells a dwelling house in a walled city, then he may redeem it within a whole year after it has been sold. For a full year he shall have the right of redemption.
      30 If it isn't redeemed within the space of a full year, then the house that is in the walled city shall be made sure in perpetuity to him who bought it, throughout his generations. It shall not be released in the Jubilee.
      31 But the houses of the villages which have no wall around them shall be reckoned with the fields of the country: they may be redeemed, and they shall be released in the Jubilee.
      32 "'Nevertheless the cities of the Levites, the houses in the cities of their possession, the Levites may redeem at any time.
      33 The Levites may redeem the house that was sold, and the city of his possession, and it shall be released in the Jubilee; for the houses of the cities of the Levites are their possession among the children of Israel.
      34 But the field of the suburbs of their cities may not be sold; for it is their perpetual possession.
      35 "'If your brother has become poor, and his hand can't support him among you; then you shall uphold him. He shall live with you like an alien and a temporary resident.
      36 Take no interest from him or profit, but fear your God; that your brother may live among you.
      37 You shall not lend him your money at interest, nor give him your food for profit.
      38 I am Yahweh your God, who brought you forth out of the land of Egypt, to give you the land of Canaan, and to be your God.
      39 "'If your brother has grown poor among you, and sells himself to you; you shall not make him to serve as a slave.
      40 As a hired servant, and as a temporary resident, he shall be with you; he shall serve with you until the Year of Jubilee:
      41 then he shall go out from you, he and his children with him, and shall return to his own family, and to the possession of his fathers.
      42 For they are my servants, whom I brought out of the land of Egypt. They shall not be sold as slaves.
      43 You shall not rule over him with harshness, but shall fear your God.
      44 "'As for your male and your female slaves, whom you may have; of the nations that are around you, from them you may buy male and female slaves.
      45 Moreover of the children of the aliens who live among you, of them you may buy, and of their families who are with you, which they have conceived in your land; and they will be your property.
      46 You may make them an inheritance for your children after you, to hold for a possession; of them may you take your slaves forever: but over your brothers the children of Israel you shall not rule, one over another, with harshness.
      47 "'If an alien or temporary resident with you becomes rich, and your brother beside him has grown poor, and sells himself to the stranger or foreigner living among you, or to a member of the stranger's family;
      48 after he is sold he may be redeemed. One of his brothers may redeem him;
      49 or his uncle, or his uncle's son, may redeem him, or any who is a close relative to him of his family may redeem him; or if he has grown rich, he may redeem himself.
      50 He shall reckon with him who bought him from the year that he sold himself to him to the Year of Jubilee: and the price of his sale shall be according to the number of years; according to the time of a hired servant shall he be with him.
      51 If there are yet many years, according to them he shall give back the price of his redemption out of the money that he was bought for.
      52 If there remain but a few years to the year of jubilee, then he shall reckon with him; according to his years of service he shall give back the price of his redemption.
      53 As a servant hired year by year shall he be with him: he shall not rule with harshness over him in your sight.
      54 If he isn't redeemed by these means, then he shall be released in the Year of Jubilee, he, and his children with him.
      55 For to me the children of Israel are servants; they are my servants whom I brought out of the land of Egypt. I am Yahweh your God.

      Psaumes 73

      3 For I was envious of the arrogant, when I saw the prosperity of the wicked.
      4 For there are no struggles in their death, but their strength is firm.
      5 They are free from burdens of men, neither are they plagued like other men.
      6 Therefore pride is like a chain around their neck. Violence covers them like a garment.
      7 Their eyes bulge with fat. Their minds pass the limits of conceit.
      8 They scoff and speak with malice. In arrogance, they threaten oppression.

      Daniel 9

      27 He shall make a firm covenant with many for one week: and in the midst of the week he shall cause the sacrifice and the offering to cease; and on the wing of abominations [shall come] one who makes desolate; and even to the full end, and that determined, shall [wrath] be poured out on the desolate.

      Daniel 11

      1 "As for me, in the first year of Darius the Mede, I stood up to confirm and strengthen him.
      2 Now will I show you the truth. Behold, there shall stand up yet three kings in Persia; and the fourth shall be far richer than they all: and when he has grown strong through his riches, he shall stir up all against the realm of Greece.
      3 A mighty king shall stand up, who shall rule with great dominion, and do according to his will.
      4 When he shall stand up, his kingdom shall be broken, and shall be divided toward the four winds of the sky, but not to his posterity, nor according to his dominion with which he ruled; for his kingdom shall be plucked up, even for others besides these.
      5 The king of the south shall be strong, and [one] of his princes; and he shall be strong above him, and have dominion; his dominion shall be a great dominion.
      6 At the end of years they shall join themselves together; and the daughter of the king of the south shall come to the king of the north to make an agreement: but she shall not retain the strength of her arm; neither shall he stand, nor his arm; but she shall be given up, and those who brought her, and he who became the father of her, and he who strengthened her in those times.
      7 But out of a shoot from her roots shall one stand up in his place, who shall come to the army, and shall enter into the fortress of the king of the north, and shall deal against them, and shall prevail.
      8 Also their gods, with their molten images, [and] with their goodly vessels of silver and of gold, shall he carry captive into Egypt; and he shall refrain some years from the king of the north.
      9 He shall come into the realm of the king of the south, but he shall return into his own land.
      10 His sons shall war, and shall assemble a multitude of great forces, which shall come on, and overflow, and pass through; and they shall return and war, even to his fortress.
      11 The king of the south shall be moved with anger, and shall come forth and fight with him, even with the king of the north; and he shall set forth a great multitude, and the multitude shall be given into his hand.
      12 The multitude shall be lifted up, and his heart shall be exalted; and he shall cast down tens of thousands, but he shall not prevail.
      13 The king of the north shall return, and shall set forth a multitude greater than the former; and he shall come on at the end of the times, [even of] years, with a great army and with much substance.
      14 In those times there shall many stand up against the king of the south: also the children of the violent among your people shall lift themselves up to establish the vision; but they shall fall.
      15 So the king of the north shall come, and cast up a mound, and take a well-fortified city: and the forces of the south shall not stand, neither his chosen people, neither shall there be any strength to stand.
      16 But he who comes against him shall do according to his own will, and none shall stand before him; and he shall stand in the glorious land, and in his hand shall be destruction.
      17 He shall set his face to come with the strength of his whole kingdom, and with him equitable conditions; and he shall perform them: and he shall give him the daughter of women, to corrupt her; but she shall not stand, neither be for him.
      18 After this shall he turn his face to the islands, and shall take many: but a prince shall cause the reproach offered by him to cease; yes, moreover, he shall cause his reproach to turn on him.
      19 Then he shall turn his face toward the fortresses of his own land; but he shall stumble and fall, and shall not be found.
      20 Then shall stand up in his place one who shall cause a tax collector to pass through the kingdom to maintain its glory; but within few days he shall be destroyed, neither in anger, nor in battle.
      21 In his place shall stand up a contemptible person, to whom they had not given the honor of the kingdom: but he shall come in time of security, and shall obtain the kingdom by flatteries.
      22 The overwhelming forces shall be overwhelmed from before him, and shall be broken; yes, also the prince of the covenant.
      23 After the treaty made with him he shall work deceitfully; for he shall come up, and shall become strong, with a small people.
      24 In time of security shall he come even on the fattest places of the province; and he shall do that which his fathers have not done, nor his fathers' fathers; he shall scatter among them prey, and spoil, and substance: yes, he shall devise his devices against the strongholds, even for a time.
      25 He shall stir up his power and his courage against the king of the south with a great army; and the king of the south shall war in battle with an exceeding great and mighty army; but he shall not stand; for they shall devise devices against him.
      26 Yes, they who eat of his dainties shall destroy him, and his army shall overflow; and many shall fall down slain.
      27 As for both these kings, their hearts shall be to do mischief, and they shall speak lies at one table: but it shall not prosper; for yet the end shall be at the time appointed.
      28 Then shall he return into his land with great substance; and his heart [shall be] against the holy covenant; and he shall do [his pleasure], and return to his own land.
      29 At the time appointed he shall return, and come into the south; but it shall not be in the latter time as it was in the former.
      30 For ships of Kittim shall come against him; therefore he shall be grieved, and shall return, and have indignation against the holy covenant, and shall do [his pleasure]: he shall even return, and have regard to those who forsake the holy covenant.
      31 Forces shall stand on his part, and they shall profane the sanctuary, even the fortress, and shall take away the continual [burnt offering], and they shall set up the abomination that makes desolate.
      32 Such as do wickedly against the covenant shall he pervert by flatteries; but the people who know their God shall be strong, and do [exploits].
      33 Those who are wise among the people shall instruct many; yet they shall fall by the sword and by flame, by captivity and by spoil, [many] days.
      34 Now when they shall fall, they shall be helped with a little help; but many shall join themselves to them with flatteries.
      35 Some of those who are wise shall fall, to refine them, and to purify, and to make them white, even to the time of the end; because it is yet for the time appointed.
      36 The king shall do according to his will; and he shall exalt himself, and magnify himself above every god, and shall speak marvelous things against the God of gods; and he shall prosper until the indignation be accomplished; for that which is determined shall be done.
      37 Neither shall he regard the gods of his fathers, nor the desire of women, nor regard any god; for he shall magnify himself above all.
      38 But in his place shall he honor the god of fortresses; and a god whom his fathers didn't know shall he honor with gold, and silver, and with precious stones, and pleasant things.
      39 He shall deal with the strongest fortresses by the help of a foreign god: whoever acknowledges [him] he will increase with glory; and he shall cause them to rule over many, and shall divide the land for a price.
      40 At the time of the end shall the king of the south contend with him; and the king of the north shall come against him like a whirlwind, with chariots, and with horsemen, and with many ships; and he shall enter into the countries, and shall overflow and pass through.
      41 He shall enter also into the glorious land, and many [countries] shall be overthrown; but these shall be delivered out of his hand: Edom, and Moab, and the chief of the children of Ammon.
      42 He shall stretch forth his hand also on the countries; and the land of Egypt shall not escape.
      43 But he shall have power over the treasures of gold and of silver, and over all the precious things of Egypt; and the Libyans and the Ethiopians shall be at his steps.
      44 But news out of the east and out of the north shall trouble him; and he shall go forth with great fury to destroy and utterly to sweep away many.
      45 He shall plant the tents of his palace between the sea and the glorious holy mountain; yet he shall come to his end, and none shall help him.

      Daniel 12

      1 "At that time shall Michael stand up, the great prince who stands for the children of your people; and there shall be a time of trouble, such as never was since there was a nation even to that same time: and at that time your people shall be delivered, everyone who shall be found written in the book.

      Matthieu 24

      15 "When, therefore, you see the abomination of desolation, which was spoken of through Daniel the prophet, standing in the holy place (let the reader understand),

      Luc 6

      20 He lifted up his eyes to his disciples, and said, "Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the Kingdom of God.
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