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REFUGE (villes de)

1.

Emplacement et noms.

D'après Jos 20:7-9 six villes de Palestine ont été consacrées comme cités de refuge, trois à l'Ouest du Jourdain et trois à l'Est Elles n'ont pas été « ... mises à-part », au hasard : il y en a deux au Nord, deux au Sud et deux au centre ; d'aucune partie du pays on n'avait à faire plus de 50 kilomètres pour atteindre l'une ou l'autre. Puis ce n'étaient pas des villes quelconques, mais bien des endroits ayant une antique réputation de sainteté, antérieure même à la conquête. Les trois villes de refuge de l'Ouest étaient : Kédès, dans la montagne de Nephthali ; comme son nom l'indique (=la Sainte), c'était un ancien sanctuaire cananéen. Sichem, au pied du mont Garizim ; son caractère sacré est prouvé par plus d'un passage biblique : d'après Ge 12:6, il y avait près de Sichem un bocage où l'on venait consulter les devins (Chênes de Moré) ; Abraham y éleva un autel (Ge 12:7) et Josué y dressa un menhir (Jos 24:26). Hébron, dans les monts de Juda, d'après No 13:22 l'une des plus anciennes villes de Palestine ; avant qu'Abraham y dressât un autel, sous les chênes de Mamré (Ge 13:18), les Cananéens et les Héthiens (Hittites) y avaient longtemps adoré leurs dieux.

Les villes de refuge de l'Est sont moins connues. Golan était dans le territoire accordé à la demi-tribu de Manassé. Ramoth en Galaad se trouvait dans le pays attribué à Gad. Béther, dans la région donnée originairement à la tribu de Ruben. Les ennemis d'Israël ne cessèrent de lui disputer ces trois localités.

2.

Caractère et raison d'être.

La nécessité d'avoir en Israël des villes possédant un droit officiel d'asile est due à l'institution du gôël (voir Vengeur du sang). Pour tout Israélite se trouvant dans l'embarras, son plus proche parent du côté masculin (père, oncle, cousin), appelé son gôël, devait venir à son secours : racheter un champ que dans un moment de détresse il avait dû abandonner à un créancier, le racheter lui-même si, pour non-paiement d'une dette, il était devenu esclave. En cas de mort violente de son parent, il était tenu de mettre lui-même à mort le meurtrier ; il devenait alors le « vengeur du sang ». En effet, la loi israélite ne connaissait pas de bourreaux chargés d'exécuter les gens coupables de meurtre. Le gôël, en accomplissant cet acte, faisait oeuvre de justice, tenue pour oeuvre sainte (No 35:33). Cependant la mort pouvait être due à quelque accident : il avait pu y avoir homicide par imprudence ; cela ne diminuait pas le devoir du gôël de poursuivre le meurtrier, mais la loi accordait à ce dernier une chance d'échapper à sa fureur.

(a) D'après la législation la plus ancienne, celle du Code de l'Alliance (Ex 21:1-23:19), l'homicide par imprudence pouvait chercher un refuge auprès d'un autel élevé à la divinité (Ex 21:13 et suivant). Chaque sanctuaire possédait le droit d'asile. Mais s'il s'agissait vraiment d'un meurtre commis avec préméditation, ou par suite d'un accès de haine, le coupable, sur décision du prêtre du sanctuaire, était arraché de l'autel et remis entre les mains du gôël. Nous avons deux exemples bibliques de cet usage de l'asile sacré : 1Ro 1:50 2:28.

(b) Il est à présumer que, dès les jours de Salomon, le roi ou les juges avaient « mis à part » comme lieux de refuge certains endroits : Hébron, Sichem, Kédès, etc. Quand le roi Josias eut opéré, en 621, sa réforme religieuse, tous les sanctuaires établis ici et là dans le pays durent disparaître, mais on ne songea pas à réserver le droit d'asile au seul temple de Jérusalem. Au contraire, on maintint l'institution des villes de refuge avec la réglementation qui avait été établie au sujet de l'exercice du droit d'asile. Ce sont ces règlements que nous trouvons dans De 19:1-13, Jos 20:4,6. Ils montrent le meurtrier qui, après avoir couru le long d'une route constamment maintenue en bon état (De 19:3), arrive à la porte de la ville de refuge. C'est là que l'occasion lui est donnée d'exposer son cas aux anciens. Ceux-ci, s'ils acceptent sa défense, lui assignent une demeure. Quant à la question de ses moyens d'existence, dans une ville où il est étranger, le texte n'en dit rien.

Dans le cas d'un meurtrier volontaire, les choses se passaient autrement. Si les anciens de sa ville le réclamaient, les autorités de la ville de refuge devaient l'envoyer sous bonne garde dans son lieu d'origine ; et les juges de cet endroit, après avoir éclairci la question et prononcé leur sentence, le livraient au vengeur du sang pour être exécuté.

(c) Le Code sacerdotal (P) compléta les dispositions du Code deutéronomique : voir No 35:9,34. Dans ce texte, pour la première fois, les villes susmentionnées sont officiellement appelées « villes de refuge » (verset 11). Ce Code précise l'attitude que doit prendre le meurtrier involontaire. Il stipule qu'il doit rester dans la cité de refuge jusqu'à la mort du grand-prêtre. Au décès de ce dernier, une amnistie générale suspend les droits et devoirs de tout gôël sur les réfugiés non coupables, mais il leur est bien recommandé de ne pas tenter de sortir avant un tel événement de la banlieue de la ville où ils se sont réfugiés, car le gôël avait le droit de les mettre à mort.

Un autre article rappelle (No 35:30, cf. De 19:15) qu'il faut au minimum deux témoins pour établir la culpabilité d'un meurtrier, et que la déposition d'un seul témoin ne compte pas.

Il semble, d'après No 35:24, que désormais c'étaient les juges du lieu d'origine et non les anciens de la ville de refuge qui devaient décider si le meurtre pouvait être considéré comme involontaire. Dans ce cas ils renvoyaient l'inculpé dans la ville où il s'était réfugié.

Le Code sacerdotal défend très expressément tout arrangement financier entre le gôël et le réfugié : l'argent ne saurait racheter le sang versé ! (No 35:32)

On remarquera que le caractère spécial des villes de refuge ne porta nulle atteinte à leur prestige, et c'est pourquoi elles peuvent être inscrites au nombre des villes lévitiques, prévues par Jos 20:3 et suivants, No 35:1 et suivants : celles qui, avec leur banlieue, devaient être attribuées par les diverses tribus aux membres de celle de Lévi. Cette dernière ordonnance paraît peu compatible avec les données de No 26:62 et avec le principe même sur lequel le Code sacerdotal a établi toute l'histoire des institutions théocratiques d'Israël : principe d'après lequel les descendants de Lévi devaient être exclus de tout droit de propriété en Israël. Aussi se demande-t-on dans quelle mesure la théorie des villes lévitiques et celle des villes de refuge ont pu être effectivement réalisées : jamais Israël ne posséda la totalité des territoires visés par ces lois.

Pour refuge, voir aussi Asile. Ch. B.

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      Genèse 12

      6 Abram passed through the land to the place of Shechem, to the oak of Moreh. The Canaanite was then in the land.
      7 Yahweh appeared to Abram and said, "I will give this land to your seed ." He built an altar there to Yahweh, who appeared to him.

      Genèse 13

      18 Abram moved his tent, and came and lived by the oaks of Mamre, which are in Hebron, and built an altar there to Yahweh.

      Exode 21

      1 "Now these are the ordinances which you shall set before them.
      2 "If you buy a Hebrew servant, he shall serve six years and in the seventh he shall go out free without paying anything.
      3 If he comes in by himself, he shall go out by himself. If he is married, then his wife shall go out with him.
      4 If his master gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master's, and he shall go out by himself.
      5 But if the servant shall plainly say, 'I love my master, my wife, and my children. I will not go out free;'
      6 then his master shall bring him to God, and shall bring him to the door or to the doorpost, and his master shall bore his ear through with an awl, and he shall serve him for ever.
      7 "If a man sells his daughter to be a female servant, she shall not go out as the male servants do.
      8 If she doesn't please her master, who has married her to himself, then he shall let her be redeemed. He shall have no right to sell her to a foreign people, since he has dealt deceitfully with her.
      9 If he marries her to his son, he shall deal with her as a daughter.
      10 If he takes another wife to himself, he shall not diminish her food, her clothing, and her marital rights.
      11 If he doesn't do these three things for her, she may go free without paying any money.
      12 "One who strikes a man so that he dies shall surely be put to death,
      13 but not if it is unintentional, but God allows it to happen: then I will appoint you a place where he shall flee.
      14 If a man schemes and comes presumptuously on his neighbor to kill him, you shall take him from my altar, that he may die.
      15 "Anyone who attacks his father or his mother shall be surely put to death.
      16 "Anyone who kidnaps someone and sells him, or if he is found in his hand, he shall surely be put to death.
      17 "Anyone who curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death.
      18 "If men quarrel and one strikes the other with a stone, or with his fist, and he doesn't die, but is confined to bed;
      19 if he rises again and walks around with his staff, then he who struck him shall be cleared: only he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall provide for his healing until he is thoroughly healed.
      20 "If a man strikes his servant or his maid with a rod, and he dies under his hand, he shall surely be punished.
      21 Notwithstanding, if he gets up after a day or two, he shall not be punished, for he is his property.
      22 "If men fight and hurt a pregnant woman so that she gives birth prematurely, and yet no harm follows, he shall be surely fined as much as the woman's husband demands and the judges allow.
      23 But if any harm follows, then you must take life for life,
      24 eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot,
      25 burning for burning, wound for wound, and bruise for bruise.
      26 "If a man strikes his servant's eye, or his maid's eye, and destroys it, he shall let him go free for his eye's sake.
      27 If he strikes out his male servant's tooth, or his female servant's tooth, he shall let him go free for his tooth's sake.
      28 "If a bull gores a man or a woman to death, the bull shall surely be stoned, and its flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner of the bull shall not be held responsible.
      29 But if the bull had a habit of goring in the past, and it has been testified to its owner, and he has not kept it in, but it has killed a man or a woman, the bull shall be stoned, and its owner shall also be put to death.
      30 If a ransom is laid on him, then he shall give for the redemption of his life whatever is laid on him.
      31 Whether it has gored a son or has gored a daughter, according to this judgment it shall be done to him.
      32 If the bull gores a male servant or a female servant, thirty shekels of silver shall be given to their master, and the ox shall be stoned.
      33 "If a man opens a pit, or if a man digs a pit and doesn't cover it, and a bull or a donkey falls into it,
      34 the owner of the pit shall make it good. He shall give money to its owner, and the dead animal shall be his.
      35 "If one man's bull injures another's, so that it dies, then they shall sell the live bull, and divide its price; and they shall also divide the dead animal.
      36 Or if it is known that the bull was in the habit of goring in the past, and its owner has not kept it in, he shall surely pay bull for bull, and the dead animal shall be his own.

      Exode 22

      1 "If a man steals an ox or a sheep, and kills it, or sells it; he shall pay five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for a sheep.
      2 If the thief is found breaking in, and is struck so that he dies, there shall be no guilt of bloodshed for him.
      3 If the sun has risen on him, guilt of bloodshed shall be for him; he shall make restitution. If he has nothing, then he shall be sold for his theft.
      4 If the stolen property is found in his hand alive, whether it is ox, donkey, or sheep, he shall pay double.
      5 "If a man causes a field or vineyard to be eaten, and lets his animal loose, and it grazes in another man's field, he shall make restitution from the best of his own field, and from the best of his own vineyard.
      6 "If fire breaks out, and catches in thorns so that the shocks of grain, or the standing grain, or the field are consumed; he who kindled the fire shall surely make restitution.
      7 "If a man delivers to his neighbor money or stuff to keep, and it is stolen out of the man's house; if the thief is found, he shall pay double.
      8 If the thief isn't found, then the master of the house shall come near to God, to find out if he hasn't put his hand to his neighbor's goods.
      9 For every matter of trespass, whether it be for ox, for donkey, for sheep, for clothing, or for any kind of lost thing, about which one says, 'This is mine,' the cause of both parties shall come before God. He whom God condemns shall pay double to his neighbor.
      10 "If a man delivers to his neighbor a donkey, an ox, a sheep, or any animal to keep, and it dies or is injured, or driven away, no man seeing it;
      11 the oath of Yahweh shall be between them both, whether he hasn't put his hand to his neighbor's goods; and its owner shall accept it, and he shall not make restitution.
      12 But if it is stolen from him, he shall make restitution to its owner.
      13 If it is torn in pieces, let him bring it for evidence. He shall not make good that which was torn.
      14 "If a man borrows anything of his neighbor's, and it is injured, or dies, its owner not being with it, he shall surely make restitution.
      15 If its owner is with it, he shall not make it good. If it is a leased thing, it came for its lease.
      16 "If a man entices a virgin who isn't pledged to be married, and lies with her, he shall surely pay a dowry for her to be his wife.
      17 If her father utterly refuses to give her to him, he shall pay money according to the dowry of virgins.
      18 "You shall not allow a sorceress to live.
      19 "Whoever has sex with an animal shall surely be put to death.
      20 "He who sacrifices to any god, except to Yahweh only, shall be utterly destroyed.
      21 "You shall not wrong an alien, neither shall you oppress him, for you were aliens in the land of Egypt.
      22 "You shall not take advantage of any widow or fatherless child.
      23 If you take advantage of them at all, and they cry at all to me, I will surely hear their cry;
      24 and my wrath will grow hot, and I will kill you with the sword; and your wives shall be widows, and your children fatherless.
      25 "If you lend money to any of my people with you who is poor, you shall not be to him as a creditor; neither shall you charge him interest.
      26 If you take your neighbor's garment as collateral, you shall restore it to him before the sun goes down,
      27 for that is his only covering, it is his garment for his skin. What would he sleep in? It will happen, when he cries to me, that I will hear, for I am gracious.
      28 "You shall not blaspheme God, nor curse a ruler of your people.
      29 "You shall not delay to offer from your harvest and from the outflow of your presses. "You shall give the firstborn of your sons to me.
      30 You shall do likewise with your cattle and with your sheep. Seven days it shall be with its mother, then on the eighth day you shall give it to me.
      31 "You shall be holy men to me, therefore you shall not eat any flesh that is torn by animals in the field. You shall cast it to the dogs.

      Exode 23

      1 "You shall not spread a false report. Don't join your hand with the wicked to be a malicious witness.
      2 "You shall not follow a crowd to do evil; neither shall you testify in court to side with a multitude to pervert justice;
      3 neither shall you favor a poor man in his cause.
      4 "If you meet your enemy's ox or his donkey going astray, you shall surely bring it back to him again.
      5 If you see the donkey of him who hates you fallen down under his burden, don't leave him, you shall surely help him with it.
      6 "You shall not deny justice to your poor people in their lawsuits.
      7 "Keep far from a false charge, and don't kill the innocent and righteous: for I will not justify the wicked.
      8 "You shall take no bribe, for a bribe blinds those who have sight and perverts the words of the righteous.
      9 "You shall not oppress an alien, for you know the heart of an alien, since you were aliens in the land of Egypt.
      10 "For six years you shall sow your land, and shall gather in its increase,
      11 but the seventh year you shall let it rest and lie fallow, that the poor of your people may eat; and what they leave the animal of the field shall eat. In the same way, you shall deal with your vineyard and with your olive grove.
      12 "Six days you shall do your work, and on the seventh day you shall rest, that your ox and your donkey may have rest, and the son of your handmaid, and the alien may be refreshed.
      13 "Be careful to do all things that I have said to you; and don't invoke the name of other gods, neither let them be heard out of your mouth.
      14 "You shall observe a feast to me three times a year.
      15 You shall observe the feast of unleavened bread. Seven days you shall eat unleavened bread, as I commanded you, at the time appointed in the month Abib (for in it you came out from Egypt), and no one shall appear before me empty.
      16 And the feast of harvest, the first fruits of your labors, which you sow in the field: and the feast of harvest, at the end of the year, when you gather in your labors out of the field.
      17 Three times in the year all your males shall appear before the Lord Yahweh.
      18 "You shall not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread, neither shall the fat of my feast remain all night until the morning.
      19 The first of the first fruits of your ground you shall bring into the house of Yahweh your God. "You shall not boil a young goat in its mother's milk.

      Nombres 13

      22 They went up by the South, and came to Hebron; and Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, the children of Anak, were there. (Now Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.)

      Nombres 26

      62 Those who were numbered of them were twenty-three thousand, every male from a month old and upward: for they were not numbered among the children of Israel, because there was no inheritance given them among the children of Israel.

      Nombres 35

      1 Yahweh spoke to Moses in the plains of Moab by the Jordan at Jericho, saying,
      9 Yahweh spoke to Moses, saying,
      24 then the congregation shall judge between the striker and the avenger of blood according to these ordinances;
      30 "'Whoever kills any person, the murderer shall be slain at the mouth of witnesses: but one witness shall not testify against any person that he die.
      32 "'You shall take no ransom for him who is fled to his city of refuge, that he may come again to dwell in the land, until the death of the priest.
      33 "'So you shall not pollute the land in which you are: for blood, it pollutes the land; and no expiation can be made for the land for the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him who shed it.
      34 You shall not defile the land which you inhabit, in the midst of which I dwell: for I, Yahweh, dwell in the midst of the children of Israel.'"

      Josué 20

      3 that the manslayer who kills any person accidentally or unintentionally may flee there. They shall be to you for a refuge from the avenger of blood.
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